RAP Percentage Recommended Virgin Asphalt Binder Grade
Less than 15 No change from basic Superpave PG binder requirements.
15 - 25 Select virgin binder one grade softer than normal (e.g., select at PG 58-22 if a PG 64-22 would normally be used).
Greater than 25 Follow recommendations from blending charts.
Mixture Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size Coarse-Graded Mix Fine-Graded Mix
37.5 mm (1.5 inches) less than 35% passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4 Sieve) > 35% passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4 Sieve)
25.0 mm (1.0 inch) less than 40% passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4 Sieve) > 40% passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4 Sieve)
19.0 mm (0.75 inches) less than 35% passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve) > 35% passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve)
12.5 mm (0.5 inches) less than 40% passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve) 40% passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve)
9.5 mm (0.375 inches) less than 45% passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve) > 45% passing the 2.36 mm (No. 8 Sieve)
28-Day Compressive Strength in MPa (psi) Water-cement ratio by weight
Non-Air-Entrained Air-Entrained
41.4 (6000) 0.41
34.5 (5000) 0.48 0.40
27.6 (4000) 0.57 0.48
20.7 (3000) 0.68 0.59
13.8 (2000) 0.82 0.74
Advantages Disadvantages
Unlike penetration depth, viscosity is a fundamental engineering parameter. The principal grading (done at 25° C (77° F)) may not accurately reflect low-temperature asphalt binder rheology.
Test temperatures correlate well with:
- 25° C (77° F) – average pavement temp.
- 60° C (140° F) – high pavement temp.
- 135° C (275° F) – HMA mixing temp.
When using the AC grading system, thin film oven test residue viscosities can vary greatly with the same AC grade. Therefore, although asphalt binders are of the same AC grade they may behave differently after construction.
Temperature susceptibility (the change in asphalt binder rheology with temperature) can be somewhat determined because viscosity is measured at three different temperatures (penetration only is measured at 25° C (77° F)). The testing is more expensive and takes longer than the penetration test.
Testing equipment and standards are widely available.
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size Fine Aggregate Fineness Modulus
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
9.5 mm (0.375 inches) 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
12.5 mm (0.5 inches) 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
19 mm (0.75 inches) 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
25 mm (1 inches) 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
37.5 mm (1.5 inches) 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
50 mm (2 inches) 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72
Notes:

  • These values can be increased by up to about 10 percent for pavement applications.

  • Coarse aggregate volumes are based on oven-dry-rodded weights obtained in accordance with ASTM C 29.

Standard Grading based on Original Asphalt (AC) Grading based on Aged Residue (AR)
AASHTO M 226 AC-2.5 AC-5 AC-10 AC-20 AC-30 AC-40 AR-10 AR-20 AR-40 AR-80 AR-160
ASTM D 3381 AC-2.5 AC-5 AC-10 AC-20 AC-30 AC-40 AR-1000 AR-2000 AR-4000 AR-8000 AR-16000
Unit volume (1 m3 or yd3)
Volume of mixing water
Volume of air
Volume of portland cement
Volume of coarse aggregate
equals Volume of fine aggregate
Limitations of Penetration, AC and AR Grading Systems Superpave Binder Testing and Specification Features that Address Prior Limitations
Penetration and ductility tests are empirical and not directly related to HMA pavement performance. The physical properties measured are directly related to field performance by engineering principles.
Tests are conducted at one standard temperature without regard to the climate in which the asphalt binder will be used. Test criteria remain constant, however, the temperature at which the criteria must be met changes in consideration of the binder grade selected for the prevalent climatic conditions.
The range of pavement temperatures at any one site is not adequately covered. For example, there is no test method for asphalt binder stiffness at low temperatures to control thermal cracking. The entire range of pavement temperatures experienced at a particular site is covered.
Test methods only consider short-term asphalt binder aging (thin film oven test) although long-term aging is a significant factor in fatigue cracking and low temperature cracking. Three critical binder ages are simulated and tested:
1. Original asphalt binder prior to mixingwith aggregate. 1. Original asphalt binder prior to mixingwith aggregate.
2. Aged asphalt binder after HMAproduction and construction. 2. Aged asphalt binder after HMAproduction and construction.
3. Long-term aged binder. 3. Long-term aged binder.
Asphalt binders can have significantly different characteristics within the same grading category. Grading is more precise and there is less overlap between grades.
Modified asphalt binders are not suited for these grading systems. Tests and specifications are intended for asphalt “binders” to include both modified and unmodified asphalt cements.
Under 90 degrees F Butane and lighter
90-220 degrees F Gasoline
220-315 degrees F Naphtha
315-450 degrees F Kerosene
450-800 degrees F Gas oil
800 degrees F and up Residuum (including asphalt)
Where: W equals axle applications inverse of equivalency factors (where W18 = number of 18,000 lb (80 kN) single axle loads)
Lx equals axle load being evaluated (kips)
L18 equals 18 (standard axle load in kips)
L2 equals code for axle configuration
1 = single axle
2 = tandem axle
3 = triple axle (added in the 1986 AASHTO Guide)
x = axle load equivalency factor being evaluated
s = code for standard axle = 1 (single axle)
G equals a function of the ratio of loss in serviceability at time, t, to the potential loss taken at a point where pt = 1.5 a function of the ratio of loss in serviceability at time, t, to the potential loss taken at a point where pt = 1.5
Pt equals "terminal" serviceability index (point at which the pavement is considered to be at the end of its useful life)
b equals function which determines the relationship between serviceability and axle load applications
SN equals structural number
Type General Purpose or Use Generic Examples
Filler Fill voids and therefore reduce optimum asphalt content
Meet aggregate gradation specifications
Increase stability
Improve the asphalt cement-aggregate bond
Mineral filler
crusher fines
lime
portland cement
fly ash
Carbon black
Extender Substituted for a portion of asphalt cement (typically between 20 – 35 % by weight of total asphalt binder) to decrease the amount of asphalt cement required Sulfur
Lignin
Rubber Increase HMA stiffness at high service temperatures
Increase HMA elasticity at medium service temperatures to resist fatigue cracking
Decrease HMA stiffness at low temperatures to resist thermal cracking
(see Figure 2)
Natural latex
Synthetic latex
(e.g., Polychloroprene latex)
Block copolymer
(e.g., Styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS))
Reclaimed rubber
(e.g., crumb rubber from old tires)
Plastic Polyethylene/polypropylene
Ethylene acrylate copolymer
Ethyl-vinyl-acetate (EVA)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Ethylene propylene or EPDM
Polyolefins
Rubber-Plastic Combinations Blends of rubber and plastic
Fiber Natural:
Asbestos
Rock wool
Manufactured:
Polypropylene
Polyester
Fiberglass
Mineral
Cellulose
Oxidant Increase HMA stiffness after the HMA is placed. Manganese salts
Antioxidant Increase the durability of HMA mixtures by retarding their oxidation Lead compounds
Carbon
Calcium salts
Hydrocarbon Restore aged asphalt cements to current specifications
Increase HMA stiffness in general
Recycling and rejuvenating oils
Hard and natural asphalts
Antistripping Agents Minimize stripping of asphalt cement from aggregates Amines
Lime
Waste Materials Replace aggregate or asphalt volume with a cheaper waste product Roofing shingles
Recycled tires
Glass
where : W18 equals predicted number of 18,000 lb (80 kN) single axle load applications
W30 equals predicted number of 30,000 lb (133 kN) single axle load applications
Lx equals L30 = 30
L2x equals 1 (single axle)
G equals serviceability loss factor
equals
b30 equals curve slope factor
equals
and G/b30 equals -0.2009/4.388 = -0.04578
b18 equals
G/b18 equals -0.2009/1.2204 = -0.1646
Thus
and
Finally LEF equals (same as contained in 1993 AASHTO Guide ?nbsp;Appendix D)<br />
(same as contained in 1993 AASHTO Guide, Appendix D)
Advantages Disadvantages
The test is done at 25° C (77° F), which is reasonably close to a typical pavement average temperature. The test is empirical and does not measure any fundamental engineering parameter such as viscosity.
May also provide a better correlation with low-temperature asphalt binder properties than the viscosity test, which is performed at 60° C (140° F). Shear rate is variable and high during the test. Since asphalt binders typically behave as a non-Newtonian fluid at 25° C (77° F), this will affect test results.
Temperature susceptibility (the change in asphalt binder rheology with temperature) can be determined by conducting the test at temperatures other than 25° C (77° F). Temperature susceptibility (the change in asphalt binder rheology with temperature) cannot be determined by a single test at 25° C (77° F).
The test is quick and inexpensive. Therefore, it can easily be used in the field. The test does not provide information with which to establish mixing and compaction temperatures.
Penetration Grade Comments
40 – 50 Hardest grade.
60 - 70 Typical grades used in the U.S.
85 - 100
120 – 150
200 – 300 Softest grade. Used for cold climates such as northern Canada (Roberts et al., 1996[1])
Material (USC given where appropriate) CBR R-Value Elastic or Resilient Modulus (psi)
Diamond 170,000,000
Steel 30,000,000
Aluminum 10,000,000
Wood 1 – 2,000,000
Crushed Stone (GW, GP, GM) 20 – 100 30 – 50 20,000 – 40,000
Sandy Soils (SW, SP, SM, SC) 5 – 40 7 – 40 7,000 – 30,000
Silty Soils (ML, MH) 3 – 15 5 – 25 5,000 – 20,000
Clay Soils (CL, CH) 3 – 10 5 – 20 5,000 – 15,000
Organic Soils (OH, OL, PT) 1 – 5 Less than 7 Less than 5,000
Equation Origin Limitations
MR = (1500)(CBR) Heukelom & Klomp (1962) Only for fine-grained non-expansive soils with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
MR = 1,000 + (555)(R-value) 1993 AASHTO Guide Only for fine-grained non-expansive soils with R-values of 20 or less.
MR= 2555 x CBR0.64 AASHTO 2002 Design Guide A fair conversion over a wide range of values.
Sieve Size Minimum Mass of Specimen
U.S. Metric (mm)
2 inches 50 mm 3000 g
1.5 inches 37.5 mm 2000 g
1.0 inches 25.0 mm 1000 g
0.75 inches 19.0 mm 500 g
0.5 inches 12.5 mm 670 g
0.375 inches 9.5 mm 330 g
No. 4 4.75 mm 300 g
Material Value Specification HMA Distress of Concern
Aggregate % Loss Varies1 Deformation, rutting
where : L40 equals 40 (tandem axle)
L18 equals 18 (single axle)
L2x equals 2 (tandem axle)
L2s equals 1 (single axle)
G equals serviceability loss factor
equals
b40 equals curve slope factor
equals Example Calculation for a Tandem Axle
and G/b40 equals -0.2009/0.53824 = -0.37325
b18 equals
G/b18 equals -0.2009/0.50006 = -0.40175
Thus Example Calculation for a Tandem Axle
Finally LEF equals (same as contained in 1993 AASHTO Guide nbsp;Appendix D)
Aggregate Size Sieve Used
U.S. Metric U.S. Metric
≥ 1.5 inches ≥ 37.5 mm 1.25 inches 31.5 mm
1.5 to 0.75 inches 37.5 to 19.0 mm 5/8 inch 16.0 mm
0.75 to 0.375 inches 19.0 to 9.5 mm 5/16 inch 8.0 mm
0.375 inches to No. 4 9.5 to 4.75 mm No. 5 4.0 mm
Percent Passing
Sieve Size Subbase Course
(Grading A)
Base Course
(Grading B)
Surface Course
(Grading F)
63 mm 2.5-inch 100
50 mm 2-inch 100 97 – 100
37.5 mm 1.5-inch 97 – 100
25.0 mm 1-inch 100
19.0 mm 0.75-inch 97 – 100
12.5 mm 0.5-inch 40 – 60 (8)
4.75 mm No. 4 40 – 60 (8) 41 – 71 (7)
0.425 mm No. 40 9 – 17 (4) 12 – 28 (5)
0.075 mm No. 200 0 – 12 (4) 4 – 8 (3) 5 – 16 (4)
Particle Size (mm) % Passing
19.0
12.5
9.5
2.00
0.300
0.075
Mix Criteria Light Traffic
(Less than 104 ESALs)
Medium Traffic
(104 - 106 ESALs)
Heavy Traffic
(Greater than 106 ESALs)
Stabilometer Value 30 35 37
Air Voids Approximately 4 percent
Degree of Expansion Probable Expansion
(as a percent of the total volume change)1
Colloidal Content (percent less than 1μm) Plasticity Index Shrinkage Limit
Very High Greater than 30 Greater than 28 Greater than 35 Less than 11
High 20 - 30 20 - 31 25 - 41 7 - 12
Medium 10 - 20 13 - 23 15 - 28 10 - 16
Low Less than 15 Less than 15 Less than 18 Greater than 15
where: st equals slab edge warping stress
C equals coefficient which is a function of slab length and the radius of relative stiffness (shown in Figure 2)
E equals modulus of elasticity of PCC
e equals thermal coefficient of PCC (» 0.000005/°F)
Δ T equals temperature differential between the top and bottom of the slab
Design ESALs Design Subgrade Percentile Value (%)
≤10,000 60
10,000 to 1,000,000 75
> 1,000,000 87.5
Material of Concern Value Specification HMA Distress
Fine aggregate Uncompacted void content See Table 2 Deformation, rutting
20-yr ESALs1 (millions) Depth from Surface
≤ 100 mm (4 inches) > 100 mm (4 inches)
< 0.3
0.3 to < 3 40 40
3 to < 10 45 40
10 to < 30 45 40
≥ 30 45 45
Description of Layer Material Conversion Factor*
Native subgrade 0.0
Improved subgrade - predominantly granular material 0.0
Lime modified subgrade of high PI soils
Granular subbase or base CBR not less than 20 0.1 - 0.3
Cement modified subbases and bases constructed from low PI soils
Cement or lime-fly ash bases with pattern cracking 0.3 - 0.5
Emulsified or cutback asphalt surfaces and bases with extensive cracking, rutting, etc.
PCC pavement broken into small pieces
Asphalt concrete surface and base that exhibit extensive cracking 0.5 - 0.7
Asphalt concrete generally uncracked 0.9 - 1.0
PCC pavement stable, undersealed and generally uncracked pavement
*Equivalent thickness of new asphalt concrete
where: st equals slab interior warping stress
E equals modulus of elasticity of PCC
e equals thermal coefficient of PCC (» 0.000005/°F)
Δ T equals temperature differential between the top and bottom of the slab
C1 equals coefficient in direction of calculated stress
C2 equals coefficient in direction perpendicular to C1
m equals Poisson’s ratio for PCC (» 0.15)
Material of Concern Value Specification HMA Distress
Coarse Aggregate Flat & elongated particle fraction See Table 2 Compaction, instability, rutting
Type of Street or Highway Estimated 18,000 lb (80 kN) ESALs
Parking lots, light traffic residential streets and farm roads 5,000
Residential streets, rural farm and residential roads 10,000
Urban and rural minor collectors 100,000
Urban minor arterials, light industrial streets, rural major collectors and rural minor arterial highways 1,000,000
Urban/rural freeways and other principal arterial highways 3,000,000
Some interstate highways and industrial roads 10,000,000
where: st equals slab interior warping stress
E equals modulus of elasticity of PCC
e equals thermal coefficient of PCC (» 0.000005/°F)
Δ T equals temperature differential between the top and bottom of the slab
m equals Poisson’s ratio for PCC (» 0.15)
a equals radius of wheel load distribution for corner loading
l equals radius of relative stiffness
20-yr ESALs1 (millions) Maximum Flat & Elongated (%)
< 0.3
0.3 to < 3 10
3 to < 10 10
10 to < 30 10
≥ 30 10
Vehicle Types Truck Factors
Rural Highways Urban Highways Combined
Interstate Other All
1. Single-units
(a) 2-axle, 4-tire 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03
(b) 2-axle, 6-tire 0.19 0.21 0.20 0.26
(c) 3-axles or more 0.56 0.73 0.67 1.03
(d) All single-units 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.09
2. Tractor semi-trailers
(a) 3-axle 0.51 0.47 0.48 0.47
(b) 4-axle 0.62 0.83 0.70 0.89
(c) 5-axles or more 0.94 0.98 0.95 1.02
(d) All multiple units 0.93 0.97 0.94 1.00
3. All trucks 0.49 0.31 0.42 0.30
where: l equals radius of relative stiffness
E equals modulus of elasticity of PCC
h equals slab thickness
k equals modulus of subgrade reaction
m equals Poisson’s ratio for PCC (» 0.15)
Material Value Specification HMA Distress of Concern
Coarse Aggregate % Loss Varies1 Deformation, skid resistance
Layer Thickness (inches) Conversion Factor (Table 2) Effective Thickness (inches)
75 mm (3 in.) 0.5 37.5 mm (1.5 in.)
200 mm (8 in.) 0.2 40.0 mm (1.6 in.)
Total Te equals 77.5 mm (3.1 in.)
Rock Type L.A. Abrasion Loss (by percent weight)
General Values
Hard, igneous rocks 10
Soft limestones and sandstones 60
Ranges for specific rocks
Basalt 10 – 17
Dolomite 18 – 30
Gneiss 33 – 57
Granite 27 – 49
Limestone 19 – 30
Quartzite 20 – 35
where: x equals depth of freeze or thaw, (ft))
λ equals dimensionless coefficient which takes into consideration the effect of temperature changes in the soil mass (i.e., a fudge factor). Corrects the Stefan formula for the neglected effects of volumetric heats (accounts for "sensible heat" changes)
kavg equals thermal conductivity of soil, average of frozen and unfrozen
(BTU/hr • ft • °F)
n equals conversion factor for air freezing (or thawing) index to surface freezing (or thawing) index
FI equals air freezing index (°F • days)
TI equals air thawing index (°F • days)
L equals latent heat (BTU/ft3)
Material of Concern Value Specification HMA Distress
Fine Aggregate Sand Equivalent See Table 2 Stripping
λ equals f (FI (or TI), mean annual air or ground temperature, thermal properties of soil)
equals f(m,a) and can be read from Figure 1
μ equals fusion parameter
C equals average volumetric heat capacity of a soil (BTU/ft3 • °F)
L equals latent heat (BTU/ft3)
equals surface freezing (or thawing) index, nFI (or nTI) divided by length of freezing (or thawing) season. Represents temperature differential between average surface temperature and 32 °F taken over the entire freeze (or thaw) season.
equals
d equals length of freezing or thawing duration. For example, if the winter freezing season is December through February, then the duration of freezing (d) equals about 90 days.
Tf equals 32 °F
Ts equals average surface temperature for the freezing (or thawing) period
α equals thermal ratio
T equals average annual air or ground temperature
|T - Tf| equals represents the amount that the mean annual temperature exceeds (or is less than) the freezing point of the soil moisture (assumed to be 32 °F).
20-yr ESALs1 (millions) Minimum Sand Equivalent (%)
< 0.3 40
0.3 to < 3 40
3 to < 10 45
10 to <30 45
≥ 30 50
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size Minimum Sample Mass, g
U.S. Metric
3.5 inches 90.0 mm 90000
3.0 inches 75.0 mm 60000
2.5 inches 63.0 mm 30000
2.0 inches 50.0 mm 15000
1.5 inches 37.5 mm 7500
1.0 inch 25.0 mm 3000
0.75 inches 19.0 mm 1500
0.5 inches 12.5 mm 500
0.375 inches 9.5 mm 200
Material Value Specification HMA Distress of Concern
Coarse aggregate Flat & elongated particle fraction See Table 3 Compaction, rutting, shoving
20-yr ESALs1 (millions) Depth from Surface2
≤ 100 mm (4 inches) > 100 mm (4 inches)
Less than 0.3 55/- -/-
0.3 to < 3 75/- 50/-
3 to < 10 85/80 60/-
10 to < 30 95/90 80/75
≥30 100/100 100/100
Nominal Maximum Particle Size Minimum VMA (percent)
(mm) (U.S.)
63 2.5 inch 11
50 2.0 inch 11.5
37.5 1.5 inch 12
25.0 1.0 inch 13
19.0 0.75 inch 14
12.5 0.5 inch 15
9.5 0.375 inch 16
4.75 No. 4 sieve 18
2.36 No. 8 sieve 21
1.18 No. 16 sieve 23.5
where: RRD equals representative rebound deflection (inches)
x equals mean of the individual deflections (inches)
s equals standard deviation of the deflections (in)
f equals temperature adjustment factor
c equals critical period adjustment factor (where c = 1 if deflection tests made during the most critical period (highest pavement deflections)).
Time Period When Deflection Data Obtained Deflection Data Adjustment Factor (c)
January - March 1.00
April - June 1.25
July - September 1.50
October - December 1.25
Trucks per Day per Lane Design Life (Years)
5 6 7 8 9 10
Less than = 200 4 4 4 4 4 4
250 4 4 4 4 5 5
300 4 4 4 5 5 5
350 4 4 5 5 5 5
400 4 5 5 5 5 5
450 5 5 5 5 5 6
500 5 5 5 5 6 6
600 5 5 5 6 6 6
700 5 5 6 6 7 7
800 5 6 6 7 7 7
900 6 6 6 7 7 n/a
1,000 6 6 7 7 n/a n/a
Average Mean Temperature (July) 24.5°C (76°F)
Average Mean Temperature (January) -2.8°C (27°F)
Annual Average Rainfall 837 mm (34 inches)
Average Depth of Frost (for fine-grained soil) 711 mm (28 inches)
Sieve Surface Course Gradation Limits Binder Course Gradation Limits
1 in. 100
3/4 in. 100 88-100
1/2 in. 86-100 55-86
3/8 in. 70-90 45-72
No. 4 45-70 31-50
No. 10 30-52 19-35
No. 20 22-40 12-26
No. 40 16-30 7-20
No. 80 9-19 4-12
No. 200 3-7 0-6
Sieve Specification Range Percent Passing Actual Mean Percent Passing
1-1/2 in. 010 100
1 in. 80-100 90
3/4 in. 70-90 81
1/2 in. 60-80 68
No. 4 40-60 48
No. 10 28-46 35
No. 40 16-33 20
No. 100 7-20 13.5
No. 200 3-12 10
Sieve Specification Range Percent Passing Actual Mean Percent Passing
1-1/2 in. 100 100
1 in. 95-100 100
3/4 in. 90-100 96
1/2 in. 80-100 90
No. 4 55-100 71
No. 10 40-80 52
No. 40 10-30 25
No. 200 5-9 6.5
where: AREA equals the FWD AREA Parameter. Expressed in units of length (usually inches or mm).
D0 equals surface deflection at the test load center
D1 equals surface deflection at 12 inches from the test load center
D2 equals surface deflection at 24 inches from the test load center
D3 equals surface deflection at 36 inches from the test load center
Pavement AREA Value
inches mm
Rigid pavement 24 – 33 610 – 840
Thick flexible pavement >= 100 mm (4 inches) 21 – 30 530 – 760
Thin flexible pavement < 100 mm (4 inches) 16 – 21 410 – 530
BST 15 – 17 380 – 430
Weak BST 12 – 15 300 – 380
Environmental Factors Mix Property Factors Construction Factors
Temperature
Ground temperature
Air temperature
Wind speed
Solar flux
Aggregate Gradation
Size
Shape
Fractured faces
Volume
Rollers
Type
Number
Speed and timing
Number of passes
Lift thickness
Asphalt binder
Chemical properties
Physical properties
Amount
Other
HMA production temperature
Haul distance
Haul time
Foundation support
Mat Thickness Mix Temperature Base Temperature Approximate Time to Cool to 79 °C (175 °F)
25 mm
(1 inch)
149 °C
(300 °F)
16 °C
(60 °F)
9 minutes
25 mm
(1 inch)
149 °C
(300 °F)
-4 °C
(25 °F)
7 minutes
50 mm
(2 inches)
121 °C
(250 °F)
16 °C
(60 °F)
16 minutes
50 mm
(2 inches)
121 °C
(250 °F)
-4 °C
(25 °F)
12 minutes
105 mm
(4.2 inches)
121 °C
(250 °F)
16 °C
(60 °F)
54 minutes
105 mm
(4.2 inches)
121 °C
(250 °F)
-4 °C
(25 °F)
39 minutes
where: equals compressive strength
Equipment / Technique Complexity
Rod and level survey most simple
Dipstick profiler simple
Profilographs simple
Response type road roughness meters (RTRRMs) complex
Profiling devices more complex
20-yr Traffic Loading
(in millions of ESALs)
Depth from Surface
≤ 100 mm (4 inches) > 100 mm (4 inches)
< 0.3 55/- -/-
0.3 to < 3 75/- 50/-
3 to < 10 85/80 60/-
10 to < 30 95/90 80/75
≥ 30 100/100 100/100
Note: The first number is a minimum requirement for one or more fractured faces and the second number is a minimum requirement for two or more fractured faces.
20-yr Traffic Loading
(in millions of ESALs)
Depth from Surface
≤ 100 mm (4 inches) > 100 mm (4 inches)
< 0.3
0.3 to < 3 40 40
3 to < 10 45
10 to < 30
≥ 30 45
Numbers shown represent the minimum uncompacted void content as a percentage of the total sample volume.
(Metric) (English)
Roughness Data Collection Device Principle of Measurement Relative Initial Cost Relative Data Collection Cost (Network) Relative Degree of Accuracy Approximate Decade of Development Extent of Current Use Projected Extent of Use
Dipstick Direct Differential Measurement Low Impractical Very High 1980s Limited, Used for Calibration Same as Current Use
Profilographs Direct Profile Recordation Low Impractical Medium 1960s Extensive for Const. Acceptance Same as Current Use
BPR Roughometer Device Response Low Low Medium 1940s Limited None
Mays Meter Vehicle Response Low Low Medium 1960s Extensive Decreasing Continuously
South Dakota Road Profiler Direct Profile Recordation Medium Low High 1980s Growing Rapidly Increasing
Contact Profiling Device Direct Profile Recordation High Medium Very High 1970s Limited Decreasing
Non-Contact Profiling Device Direct Profile Recordation High Medium Very High 1980s Medium Increasing Continuously
20-yr Traffic Loading
(in millions of ESALs)
Maximum Percentage of Particles with h/Thickness > 5
Less than 0.3 -
0.3 to < 3 10
3 to < 10
10 to < 30
≥ 30
20-yr Traffic Loading
(in millions of ESALs)
Minimum Sand Equivalent (%)
Less than 0.3 40
0.3 to < 3
3 to < 10 45
10 to < 30
≥ 30 50
(Metric) (English)
Skid Number Comments
Less than 30 Take measures to correct
≥30 Acceptable for low volume roads
31 – 34 Monitor pavement frequently
≥35 Acceptable for heavily traveled roads
Original Grade Grade for Slow Transient Loads (increase 1 grade) Grade for Stationary Loads (increase 2 grades) 20-yr ESALs > 30 million (increase 1 grade)
PG 58-22 PG 64-22 PG 70-22 PG 64-22
PG 70-22* PG 76-22 PG 82-22 PG 76-22
*the highest possible pavement temperature in North America is about 70°C but two more high temperature grades were necessary to accommodate transient and stationary loads.
Parameter Formula Measuring Device
Maximum deflection D0 Benkelman Beam, Lacroux deflectometer, FWD
Radius of curvature R = r2/2 D0(D0/Dr – 1); r = 5″ Curvaturemeter
Spreadability S = + D1 + D2 + D3/5100/D0; D1 … D3 spaced 12″ apart Dynaflect
Area A = 6[1 + 2 (D1/D0) + 2 (D2/ D0) + D3/D0); with sensors located at 0, 1, 2, 3 ft FWD
Shape factors F1 = (D0 -D2) / D1 and F2 = (D1 -D3) / D2 FWD
Surface curvature index SCI = D0 – Dr, where r = 12″ or r = 20″ Benkelman Beam, Road Rater, FWD
Base curvature index BCI = D24″ – D36″ Road Rater
Base damage index BDI = D12″ – D24″ Road Rater
Deflection ratio Qr = Dr/D0, where Dr ≈ D0/2 FWD
Bending index BI = D/a, where a = Deflection basin Benkelman Beam
Slope of deflection SD = tan-1 (D0 – Dr )/r where r = 24 in. Benkelman Beam
20-yr Traffic Loading
(in millions of ESALs)
Number of Gyrations
Ninitial Ndesign Nmax
Less than 0.3 6 50 75
0.3 to < 3 7 75 115
3 to < 10* 8 (7) 100 (75) 160 (115)
10 to < 30 8 100 160
≥ 30 9 125 205
* When the estimated 20-year design traffic loading is between 3 and < 10 million ESALs, the agency may, at its discretion, specify Ninitial = 7, Ndesign = 75 and Nmax = 115.
20-yr Traffic Loading
(in millions of ESALs)
Required Density (as a percentage of TMD)
Ninitial Ndesign Nmax
Less than 0.3 ≤ 91.5 96.0 ≤ 98.0
0.3 to < 3 ≤ 90.5
3 to < 10 ≤ 89.0
10 to < 30
≥ 30
(Metric) (English)
Load, P, lb (kN) Surface Thickness, hAC, in. (mm) Surface Modulus, EAC, psi (MPa) Subgrade Modulus, ESG, psi (MPa)
5,000 (22) 2 (50) 2,000,000 (13800) 50,000 (345)
10,000 (44) 6 (150) 500,000 (3450) 30,000 (207)
15,000 (67) 12 (300) 100,000 (690) 10,000 (69)
18 (450) 5,000 (35)
2,500 (17)
20-yr Traffic Loading
(in millions of ESALs)
Minimum VMA (percent) VFA Range (percent)
9.5 mm (0.375 inch) 12.5 mm (0.5 inch) 19.0 mm (0.75 inch) 25.0 mm (1 inch) 37.5 mm (1.5 inch)
Less than 0.3 15.0 14.0 13.0 12.0 11.0 70 – 80
0.3 to < 3 65 – 78
3 to < 10 65 – 75
10 to < 30
≥ 30
Load, P, lb (kN) Surface Thickness, hAC, in. (mm) Base Thickness, hB, in (mm) Surface Modulus, EAC, psi (MPa) Base Modulus, EB, psi (MPa) Subgrade Modulus, ESG, psi (MPa)
5,000 (22) 2 (50) 4 (100) 2,000,000 (13800) 100,000 (690) 50,000 (345)
10,000 (44) 6 (150) 10 (250) 500,000 (3450) 50,000 (345) 30,000 (207)
15,000 (67) 12 (300) 18 (450) 100,000 (690) 30,000 (207) 10,000 (69)
10,000 (69) 5,000 (35)
2,500 (17)
Material Value Specification Property of Concern
Unaged binder Mass loss1 ≤ 1.0% None
Climate Condition
Dry Wet – No Freeze Wet - Freeze
Frozen Unfrozen
Material psi (MPa) psi (MPa) psi (MPa) psi (MPa)
Clay 15,000 (103) 6,000 (41) 6,000 (41) 50,000 (345)
Silt 15,000 (103) 10,000 (69) 5,000 (34) 50,000 (345)
Silty or Clayey Sand 20,000 (138) 10,000 (69) 5,000 (34) 50,000 (345)
Sand 25,000 (172) 25,000 (172) 25,000 (172) 50,000 (345)
Silty or Clayey Gravel 40,000 (276) 30,000 (207) 20,000 (138) 50,000 (345)
Gravel 50,000 (345) 50,000 (345) 40,000 (276) 50,000 (345)
Parameter Maximum Permissible Difference in Results of Tests Taken from Two Locations in the PCC Batch
Metric English
Weight per unit volume calculated to an air-free basis 16 kg/m3 1 lb/ft3
Air content 1.0 % 1.0 %
Slump
If average slump < 102 mm (4 inches) 25 mm 1.0 inch
If average slump is 102 – 152 mm (4 – 6 inches) 38 mm 1.5 inches
Coarse aggregate content (percent by weight retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve) 6.0 % 6.0 %
Unit weight of air-free mortar (based on an average of all comparative samples tested) 1.6 % 1.6 %
Average 7-day compressive strength for each sample (based on an average of all comparative test specimens) 7.5 % 7.5 %
(Metric) (English)
Unit volume (1 m3 or yd3) 1.000 m3 27.00 ft3
- Volume of mixing water - 0.148 m3 4.00 ft3
- Volume of air - 0.055 m3 1.49 ft3
- Volume of portland cement - 0.121 m3 3.26 ft3
- Volume of coarse aggregate - 0.424 m3 11.46 ft3
equals Volume of fine aggregate equals 0.252 m3 6.79 ft3
Type Desired Effect Material
Accelerators
  • Accelerate setting and early strength development
  • Calcium chloride, triethanolamine, sodium thiocyanate, calcium formate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate
Air detrainers
  • Decrease air content
  • Tributyl phosphate, dibutyl phthalate, octyl alcohol, water-insoluble esters of carbonic and boic acid, silicones
Air-entraining
  • Improve durability in environments of freeze-thaw, deicers, sulfate and alkali reactivity
  • Improve workability
  • Salts of wood resins, lignin, petroleum acids, proteinaceous material or sulfonated hydrocarbons
  • Some synthetic detergents
  • Fatty and resinous acids and their salts
  • Alyklbenzene sulfonates
Alkali-reactivity reducers
  • Reduce alkali-reactivity expansion
  • Pozzolans, blast-furnace slag, salts of lithium and barium, air-entraining agents
Bonding
  • Increase bond strength
  • Rubber, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate, acrylics, butadienestyrene copolymers
Corrosion inhibitors
  • Reduce steel corrosion activity in a chloride environment
  • Calcium nitrite, sodium nitrite, sodium benzoate, certain phosphates or flurosilicates, fluroaluminates
Damp proofing
  • Retard moisture penetration into dry PCC
  • Soaps of calcium or ammonium stearate or oleate
  • Butyl stearate
  • Petroleum products
Cementitious Minerals
  • Hydraulic properties
  • Partial cement replacement
  • Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
  • Natural cement
  • Hydraulic hydrated lime
Natural pozzolans
  • Pozzolonic activity
  • Improve workability, plasticity, sulfate resistance
  • Reduce alkali reactivity, permeability, heat of hydration
  • Partial cement replacement
  • Filler
  • Diatomaceous earth, opaline cherts, clays, shales, volcanic tuffs, pumicites
  • Fly ash (classes C and F)
  • Silica fume
Inert minerals
  • Improve workabilityFiller
  • Marble, dolomite, quartz, granite
Permeability reducers
  • Reduce permeability
  • Silica fume, fly ash, ground slag, natural pozzolans, water reducers, latex
Pumping aids
  • Improve pumpability
  • Organic and synthetic polymers
  • Organic flocculents
  • Organic emulsions of paraffin, coal tar, asphalt, acrylics
  • Bentonite and pyrogenic silicas
  • Natural pozzolans
  • Fly ash
  • Hydrated lime
Retarders
  • Retard setting time
  • Lignin, borax, sugars, tartaric acid and salts
Superplasticizers (high-range water reducers)
  • Reduce water-cement ratio by a minimum of 12%
  • Increase workability at low water-cement ratios
  • Sulfonated melamine formaldehyde condensates
  • Sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates
  • Lignosulfonates
Water reducer
  • Reduce water demand by a minimum of 5%
  • Lignosulfonates
  • Hydroxylated carboxylic acids
  • Carbohydrates
Workability agents
  • Improve workability
  • Air-entraining admixtures
  • Cementitious materials, natural pozzolans and inert minerals (except silica fume)
(Metric) (English)
Pavement Cases Pavement Surface Deflections, inches Area
D0 D1 D2 D3 in. (mm)
Standard Pavement (HMA @ 500,000 psi, base course @ 25,000 psi, and subgrade @ 7,500 psi)
Section A (thin) 0.048 0.026 0.014 0.009 17.1 (434)
Section B (med) 0.027 0.020 0.014 0.010 23.3 (592)
Section C (thick) 0.018 0.015 0.012 0.009 27.0 (686)
Stabilize Subgrade (upper 6 in. of subgrade increased from 7,500 to 50,000 psi)
Section A (thin) 0.036 0.020 0.013 0.009 18.5 (470)
Section B (med) 0.023 0.017 0.012 0.009 23.5 (597)
Section C (thick) 0.016 0.013 0.011 0.009 27.4 (696)
Asphalt Treated Base (increase base course modulus from 25,000 to 500,000 psi)
Section A (thin) 0.021 0.018 0.013 0.010 26.6 (676)
Section B (med) 0.014 0.012 0.010 0.009 28.7 (729)
Section C (thick) 0.012 0.011 0.009 0.008 30.0 (762)
Moisture Sensitivity (decrease HMA modulus from 500,000 to 200,000 psi)
Section A (thin) 0.053 0.026 0.014 0.009 16.1 (409)
Section B (med) 0.033 0.022 0.014 0.009 20.7 (526)
Section C (thick) 0.024 0.018 0.013 0.010 24.0 (610)
FWD Based Parameter Generalized Conclusions*
Area Maximum Surface Deflection (D0)
Low Low Weak structure, strong subgrade
Low High Weak structure, weak subgrade
High Low Strong structure, strong subgrade
High High Strong structure, weak subgrade
Pavement location Urban
Pavement functional classification Interstate
Number of lanes 3 lanes in each direction
Traffic distribution Assume 80% of the loading occurs in the design lane
Annual growth rate Assume 2%
Design period Investigate 20, 30 and 40 year design periods
Construction Materials PCC Ec = 31,026 MPa (4,500,000 psi)
PCC S’c = 5.17 MPa (750 psi)
Load Transfer Use dowel bars and assume J = 3.2
Overall serviceability loss po – pt = 4.5 – 3.0 = 1.5
Reliability Investigate three levels: R = 90%, R = 95%, R = 99%. This represents a typical range of reliability levels encountered for Interstate highways.
o 0.40
Drainage coefficient (Cd) 1.0 (usually assumed if no better data exist)
Loss of support 1.0
Traffic count Single unit trucks (assume 0.34 ESALs per truck) = 1872/day
Double unit trucks (assume 1.00 ESALs per truck) = 1762/day
Truck trains – trucks with more than 2 units (assume 2.60 ESALs per truck) = 247/day
Pavement Area
in. (mm)
PCCP 24-33 (610-840)
“Sound” PCC* 29-32 (740-810)
BST flexible pavement (relatively thin structure) 15-17 (380-430)
Thick ACP (≥ 4.2 in. HMA) 21-30 (530-760)
Weak BST 12-15 (300-380)
Thin ACP (< 4.2 in. HMA) 16-21 (410-530)
Month MR Subbase MR Composite k Relative Damage (ur)
January 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 950 95
February 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 950 95
March 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 950 95
April 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 1,000 92
May 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 1,000 92
June 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 1,000 92
July 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 1,000 92
August 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 1,000 92
September 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 1,000 92
October 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 950 92
November 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 950 95
December 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi) 950 95
(Metric) (English)
Coarse aggregate: 1136 x 1.01 = 1147 kg/m3 1917 x 1.01 = 1936 lb/yd3
Fine aggregate: 665 x 1.05 = 698 kg/m3 1119 x 1.05 = 1175 lb/yd3
nd Deflections (mils)
Measured Calculated
1 (0″) 5.07 4.90
2 (8″) 4.32 3.94
3 (12″) 3.67 3.50
4 (18″) 2.99 3.06
5 (24″) 2.40 2.62
6 (36″) 1.69 1.86
7 (60″) 1.01 0.95
Design Period Design Period ESALs Pavement Layer Layer Thickness
Reliability = 90% Reliability = 95% Reliability = 99%
20 years 22,000,000 PCC Surface Course 280 mm
(11 inches)
305 mm
(12 inches)
330 mm
(13 inches)
HMA Base Course 100 mm
(4 inches)
100 mm
(4 inches)
100 mm
(4 inches)
Crushed Stone Subbase Course 135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
30 years 36,000,000 PCC Surface Course 305 mm
(12 inches)
320 mm
(12.5 inches)
355 mm
(14 inches)
HMA Base Course 100 mm
(4 inches)
100 mm
(4 inches)
100 mm
(4 inches)
Crushed Stone Subbase Course 135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
40 years 54,000,000 PCC Surface Course 330 mm
(13 inches)
345 mm
(13.5 inches)
380 mm
(15 inches)
HMA Base Course 100 mm
(4 inches)
100 mm
(4 inches)
100 mm
(4 inches)
Crushed Stone Subbase Course 135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
(Metric) (English)
Coarse aggregate: 1136 x (0.01 - 0.005) = 5.7 kg/m3 1917 x (0.01 - 0.005) = 10 lb/yd3
Fine aggregate: 665 x (0.05 - 0.007) = 28.6 kg/m3 1119 x (0.05 - 0.007) = 48 lb/yd3
Load Level Deflections (mils)
D0 D8 D12 D18 D24 D36 D60
9,512 lb 5.07 4.32 3.67 2.99 2.40 1.69 1.01
9,000 lb (normalized) 4.76 4.04 3.44 2.80 2.26 1.59 0.95
6,534 lb 3.28 2.69 2.33 1.88 1.56 1.09 0.68
Parameter Maximum Permissible Difference in Results of Tests Taken from Two Locations in the PCC Batch
Metric English
Weight per unit volume calculated to an air-free basis 16 kg/m3 1 lb/ft3
Air content 1.0 % 1.0 %
Slump
If average slump < 102 mm (4 inches)
If average slump is 102 – 152 mm (4 – 6 inches)
25 mm
1.0 inch
38 mm
1.5 inches
Coarse aggregate content (percent by weight retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve) 6.0 % 6.0 %
Unit weight of air-free mortar (based on an average of all comparative samples tested) 1.6 % 1.6 %
Average 7-day compressive strength for each sample (based on an average of all comparative test specimens) 7.5 % 7.5 %
148 kg - 5.7 kg - 28.6 kg equals 113.7 kg
250 lb - 10 lb - 48 lb equals 192 lb
Dr (mils) r 1/r(1/ft)
4.76 0″
4.04 8″ 1.50
3.44 12″ 1.00
2.80 18″ 0.67
2.26 24″ 0.50
1.59 36″ 0.33
0.95 60″ 0.20
(Metric) English)
Mixing water 114 kg 192 lb
Portland cement 380 kg 641 lb
Coarse aggregate 1147 kg 1936 lb
Fine aggregate 698 kg 1175 lb
Time of Day (a.m. or p.m.) Tensile Strain Bottom of HMA (x 10-6)
Backcalculated* Measured % Difference
a.m. 119 123 -3
a.m. 119 122 -2
a.m. 74 64.9 +14
a.m. 60 64.7 -8
p.m. 284 292 -3
p.m. 284 283 ~0
p.m. 167 159 +5
p.m. 167 158 +6
p.m. 87 84.8 +2
p.m. 81 84.2 -4
Type of Material Beneath the Slab Friction Factor (F)
Surface Treatment 2.2
Lime Stabilization 1.8
Asphalt Stabilization 1.8
Cement Stabilization 1.8
River Gravel 1.5
Crushed Stone 1.5
Sandstone 1.2
Natural Subgrade 0.9
Material Poisson’s Ratio
Steel 0.25 – 0.30
Aluminum 0.33
PCC 0.15 – 0.20*
Flexible Pavement
Asphalt Concrete 0.35 (±)
Crushed Stone 0.40 (±)
Soils (fine-grained) 0.45 (±)
Time of Day (a.m. or p.m.) Tensile Strain Bottom of AC (x 10-6)
Backcalculated* Measured % Difference
a.m. 66 69.5 -6
a.m. 71 69.0 +3
a.m. 68 68.7 -1
a.m. 38 34.7 +9
a.m. 127 130 -2
a.m. 119 130 -8
p.m. 178 185 -4
p.m. 182 183 -1
p.m. 104 95.9 +8
p.m. 51 48.0 +6
p.m. 56 48.5 +14
Frequency Number of Cycles
10 50
5 50
2 20
1 20
0.5 7
0.2 7
0.1 7
0.05 4
0.02 4
0.01 4
where x: b equals binder
s equals stone (i.e., aggregate)
m equals mixture
y: b equals bulk
e equals effective
a equals apparent
m equals maximum
Anionic Emulsions Cationic Emulsions
RS-1 CRS-1
RS-2 CRS-2
MS-1 --
MS-2 CMS-2
MS-2h CMS-2h
HFMS-1 --
HFMS-2 --
HFMS-2h --
HFMS-2s --
SS-1 CSS-1
SS-1h CSS-1h
VT equals Total volume of the compacted specimen WT equals Total weight of the compacted specimen
Va equals Volume of air voids WD equals Dry weight
Vb equals Volume of asphalt binder WSSD equals Saturated surface dry (SSD) weight
Vbe equals Volume of effective asphalt binder Wsub equals Weight submerged in water
Vba equals Volume of absorbed asphalt binder Wb equals Weight of the asphalt binder
Vagg equals Volume of aggregate Wbe equals Weight of effective asphalt binder
Veff equals Effective volume of aggregate = (VT – VAC) Wba equals Weight of absorbed asphalt binder
Wagg equals Weight of aggregate
Gsa equals Apparent specific gravity of the aggregate
Gb equals Asphalt binder specific gravity Pb equals Asphalt content by weight of mix (percent)
Gsb equals Bulk specific gravity of the aggregate Ps equals Aggregate content by weight of mix (percent)
Gse equals Effective specific gravity of the aggregate Pa equals Percent air voids
Gmb equals Bulk specific gravity of the compacted mixture
Gmm equals Maximum theoretical specific gravity of the mixture γW equals Unit weight of water
Temperature Shear Stress
39°F (4°C) 50 psi (345 kPa)
68°F (20°C) 15 psi (105 kPa)
104°F (40°C) 5 psi (35 kPa)
Major Divisions Group Symbol Typical Description
Coarse-Grained Soils
More than 50% retained on the No. 200 sieve
Gravels
50% or more of coarse fraction retained on the No. 4 sieve
Clean Gravels GW Well-graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures, little or no fines
GP Poorly graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures, little or no fines
Gravels with Fines GM Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures
GC Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay mixtures
Sands
50% or more of coarse fraction passes the No. 4 sieve
Clean Sands SW Well-graded sands and gravelly sands, little or no fines
SP Poorly graded sands and gravelly sands, little or no fines
Sands with Fines SM Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures
SC Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures
Fine-Grained Soils
More than 50% passes the No. 200 sieve
Silts and Clays
Liquid Limit 50% or less
ML Inorganic silts, very fine sands, rock flour, silty or clayey fine sands
CL Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, gravelly/sandy/silty/lean clays
OL Organic silts and organic silty clays of low plasticity
Silts and Clays
Liquid Limit greater than 50%
MH Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine sands or silts, elastic silts
CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays
OH Organic clays of medium to high plasticity
Highly Organic Soils PT Peat, muck, and other highly organic soils
Title Caltrans Tech Lead PPRC Project Manager Purpose & Objectives
2.1 Development of Partnered Research Program N.Burmas J.Harvey C.Monismith N.Coetzee Develop a partnered research program1. Monitor technical literature2. Attend conferences and meetings3. Serve on technical committees4. Meet with potential partners5. Monitor/update program
2.2 Pavement Research Database N.Burmas L.Popescu Capture all data from PPRC activities into relational databases for future use1. Develop structures for new data2. Organize all data produced3. Develop improved access and analysis procedures4. Maintain library and database. Reports and HVS database
2.3 Provide Pavement Advice N.Burmas J.Harvey C.Monismith Others Distribute pavement information to Caltrans1. Participate in meetings, discussions and presentations2. Technology scanning outside California3. Technology transfer to Caltrans, contractors and others4. Advice on “corporate” or “overhead” operational issues.
2.4 Special Forensic Studies (several separate projects) Various Various 2.4.1 Longitudinal Joint Compaction2.4.2 US-395: “Pulverization” — Deep in-situ recycling (DISR)2.4.3 SR-20 (Cancelled)2.4.4 SR-138 (Moved to 4.16)
Title Caltrans Tech Lead PPRC Project Manager Purpose & Objectives
3.1 First set of implementation studies (several separate projects) Various Various 3.1.1 Calibration of HiperPav for California Conditions
3.1.2 Evaluation of Concrete Maturity Meters
3.1.3 Use of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) for maintenance, rehabilitation and reconstruction site evaluation
3.1.4 Quality Assurance Laboratory Testing for AC Long Life pavement mix designs (I-710)
3.1.5 Development of new asphalt concrete QC/QA pay factor tables
3.2 Second set of implementation studies (several separate projects) Various Various 3.2.1 Calibration Sites for Falling Weight Deflectometers (FWD), Profilers, and Skid Resistance Devices (Cancelled)
3.2.2 Evaluation of Profilers and Automated Distress Data Collection Equipment (Moved to 3.3)
3.2.3 Process for Evaluating Recycling Strategies for Pavement Materials, with first case study “Recycling of PCC Grindings Slurry” (Cancelled)
3.2.4 Development of Integrated Databases to Make Pavement Preservation Decisions (GPR Study)
3.2.5 Documentation of pavement performance data for pavement preservation strategies and evaluation of cost-effectiveness of such strategies
3.2.6 Development of Improved Patching Procedures for OGAC Overlays
3.2.7 Pilot Projects for Compaction Specifications for Aggregate Base and Aggregate Subbase/Use of the Rapid Compaction Control Device (RCCD)
3.2.8 Pilot Projects for Chip Seal Specifications based on South African Design Practice
3.2.9 Development of Guidelines for Effective Maintenance Treatment Evaluation Test Sections
3.2.10 Mix design Procedure for Asphalt Concrete Base for Rigid Pavements (Cancelled)
3.2.11 I-710 phase 2 support
3.2.12 PG Binder Asphalt Specifications
3.3 Studies to Support Implementation of Enterprise Pavement Management System (PMS) P.Vacura J.Harvey
B.Steven
Support Implementation of a Caltrans Pavement Management System1. Develop PMS Database 2. Evaluation of pavement structure inventory for entire road network 3. Evaluation of pavement surface condition inventory for entire road network. 4. Predictive models 5. Long-term Technology Sharing and Development
3.4 Implementation of Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Rehabilitation W.Farnbach J.Signore
V.Kannekanti
P.Ullidtz
Implementation of findings from research goal 4.11. Develop a library of typical material properties 2. Perform case studies using CalME and MEPDG 3. Evaluate rehabilitation procedures in MEPDG 4. Perform Comparisons between MEPDG flexible module and CalME
Title Caltrans Tech Lead PPRC Project Manager Purpose & Objectives
4.1 Development of the First Version of a Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and New Pavement Design Procedure for Rigid and Flexible Pavements (pre-Calibration of MEPDG) W.Farnbach V.Kannekanti
J.Signore
P.Ullidtz
J.Lea
E.Kohler
BW.Tsai
I.Guada
Improve Caltrans pavement performance by implementation of mechanistic design, integration of structure, materials, construction 1. Evaluate ME-PDG (bench testing of JPCP, CRCP & flexible designs) 2. Instrument and test sites for seasonal deflection curve development 3. Create climate databases 4. Develop truck traffic database from WIM 5. Develop library of typical CT materials mechanistic properties 6. Verify design systems (CalME and RadiCal) 7. Calibrate design systems (CalME, RadiCAL, & MEPDG)
4.2 Evaluation of Rigid Pavement Long-Life Pavement Rehabilitation Strategies W.Farnbach E.Kohler
L.duPlessis
Evaluate design options to increase the performance and reliability of freeway rehabilitation and reconstruction projects 1. Evaluate adequacy of structural design options with respect to joint distress, fatigue cracking, and corner cracking 2. Assess concrete durability for ASR, sulfate attack, fatigue, and strength gain 3. Measure effects of construction, mix design on durability, and structural performance
4.3 Performance of Drained & Undrained Flexible Structures Under Wet Conditions W.Farnbach J.Harvey Complete evaluation of drained vs. undrained flexible structures 1. Results from HVS testing under wet conditions 2. Measurement of flow rates and monitoring of water content changes 3. Lab testing on typical aggregate bases used by the Department 4. Development of improved constitutive relations for granular pavement materials 5. Recommendations regarding use of ATPB layer in flexible pavements
4.4 Development of Asphalt Concrete Rutting Performance Tests and Analysis Procedures T.Bressette J.Signore
C.Monismith
I.Guada
Develop improved AC models, use to improve mix design and test methods 1. Finalize work on constitutive relation for AC at elevated temperatures 2. Develop procedure for analysis of test data to predict AC rutting performance 3. Goal 9 Specimens (linked with 4.10) 4. Determine relation between specimen size, sample size, and test variability for AC at high temperatures (RVE-128 cores) 5. Develop prototype device based upon simple shear tester
4.5 Calibration of Mechanistic-Empirical Design Models W.Farnbach J.Harvey 1. Evaluate the Department’s Pavement Management System (PMS) data for models for various distresses 2. Evaluate Arizona & Washington State DOT PMS databases for compatibility with the Department’s database and for models 3. List all known field test sections in the State and organize with respect to different pavement deterioration issues 4. Lab testing of material samples 5. Calibrate empirical-mechanistic models for key distresses using lab and field performance data and data from the PMS
4.6 Development of Rehabilitation Construction Productivity Analysis Products C.Suszko EB.Lee Portion A. Develop tools that will permit reduction of construction duration and cost and traffic delay through better planning, design & specifications Portion B. Develop work zone traffic estimation models
4.7 Verification of Asphalt Concrete Long-Life Pavement Strategies W.Farnbach J.Harvey
C.Monismith
Develop performance estimates for Long Life AC Strategies Lab tests, Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) tests, and analysis for: 1. crack, seat, and overlay, include reflective cracking and rutting study 2. full depth reconstruction.
4.8 Dowel Bar Retrofit of Rigid Pavements W.Farnbach, METS rigid E.Kohler Evaluate the Dowel Bar Retrofit Strategy and best options for its implementation 1. Field Accelerated Pavement Testing with the HVS; to collect full scale data quickly, although with heavier loads than normally occur under real traffic. Includes measurement of LTE and other pavement properties with the FWD. 2. Field Live Traffic Testing. Approx. 2 years. 3. Laboratory testing of materials. Permits evaluation of additional variables that can’t be included in HVS testing. Also used to characterize materials used in HVS test sections. 4. Modeling i. Finite element analysis of doweled concrete pavement joint: allows for performance prediction of other options without testing; permits extrapolation of HVS results. ii. Compilation of performance data from existing DBR projects throughout the USA: allows for calibration of HVS and analysis results to field project results. iii. Life-Cycle-Cost-Analyses
4.9 Investigation of Asphalt Concrete Moisture Damage T.Bressette J.Signore Evaluate the extent and causes and risk of AC moisture damage in California and investigate measures to mitigate risk. 1. Statewide field investigation – Collection of field samples – cores. State-wide field investigation of extent, contributing factors, develop risk matrix. Develop moisture damage identification tools 2. Permeability measurement in field 3. Laboratory investigation of risks and mitigation measures – Percentage of stripped area, moisture content, Rice, BSG, HWTD, TSR 4. Reporting – Production of a final report – Analysis of risk factors; extent; lab test evaluation, recommend mitigation 5. Review by Caltrans and formal in-person presentation to Caltrans
4.10 Development of Improved Rehabilitation Designs for Reflection Cracking T.Bressette
W.Farnbach
D.Jones Investigate mechanisms of reflection cracking, develop improved methods of design 1. Construct a uniform test road with six experimental sections using conventional Caltrans design and fail the sections by fatigue cracking with the HFS. One failed, six sections will be overlaid with DGAC, AR-G and MB 2. Compare the performance of the overlays under HVS trafficking and controlled conditions. 3. Analyze the effect of the overlay thickness on the performance of the MB overlays 4. Validate existing deflection-based Caltrans thickness design procedures for DGAC and AR-G with respect to reflective cracking and rutting. 5. Quantify the effective elastic moduli of the various pavement layers. 6. Determine the failure mechanisms at moderate temperatures. 7. Determine the permanent deformation behavior in all the layers at moderate temperatures. 8. Evaluate the influence of binder properties on the laboratory fatigue and field reflective cracking performance. 9. Evaluate the rutting performance of the overlaid test pavements in terms of short and long term performance 10. Prepare recommendation on the use of MB overlays for Caltrans.
4.11 Evaluation of Hydraulic Cement Concrete Mix Design for Pavements (Cancelled)
4.12 Development of Mix and Structural Design and Construction Guidelines for Deep In-Situ Recycling (DISR) of Cracked Asphalt Concrete as Stabilized or Unstabilized Bases T.Bressette D.Jones
J.Harvey
Evaluate DISR Foamed Asphalt, develop improved mix design and structural design practice Revised workplan accepted by PST 11/22/05. HVS testing still to be decided 1. Literature survey 2. Mechanistic sensitivity analysis 3. Assessment of constructed projects (including HVS test on SR89) 4. Assessment of planned projects (potentially also HVS testing) 5. Laboratory testing 6. Project selection guidelines 7. Structural design recommendations 8. Construction recommendations
4.13 Validation of Asphalt Concrete QC/QA Pay Factors (Cancelled)
4.14 A Framework for Implementing Innovative Contracting Methods For Transportation Infrastructure Rehabilitation/Reconstruction C.Suszko
S.Shatnawi
EB.Lee Portion A1. Analysis framework to help determine optimal contracting methods for specific projects; evaluate impacts of implementation; determine best practices for warranty method 2. Evaluation of implementation issues by using analysis framework on case studies 3. Software program or other tool implementing analysis framework 4. Case Study: Evaluate warranties for asphalt rubber chip seal project in Dist 11Portion B Develop guidelines towards effective use of schedule based I/D provisions and devise decision supporting computer model that determines the most economic I/D dollar amounts & optimal contract completion times. 1. Gather and summarize information through extensive review of pertinent literature review 2. Compare projects with conventional contracting projects 3. Evaluate effectiveness of schedule-based I/D provisions 4. Develop a computer model
4.15 Development of Integrated Pavement Strategy Decision Support System (incl. Life Cycle Cost Analysis) W.Farnbach EB.Lee 1. Develop project-level analysis system that models and optimizes a pavement rehabilitation/reconstruction project’s life cycle cash flow and financing (i.) to develop a decision-supporting tool or guidelines that can help determine ranges of appropriate inputs for a project-level life-cycle cost analysis using FHWA RealCost; (ii.) to provide a training tool and/or trainings for the project-level life-cycle cost analysis; and (iii.) to estimate cost overrun for long life projects based on cost data from several current projects. 2. Analysis framework that can help determine the optimal investment stream at the corridor and network level, maximizing total net benefits under budgetary constraints. (i.) Multi-year investment analysis procedure that determines the proper allocation of funding among programs for roadway preservation. (ii.) Develop a prototype working model based on CT data and practice 3. Re-analyze long-life pavement criteria
4.16 Investigation of Improved Open Graded Mix Designs (incl. Quiet Pavement-AC) W.Farnbach E.Kohler Develop open-graded mix designs with improved durability and long-lasting permeability and noise absorption performance. Results will be achieved through a combination of field and laboratory measurements of sound, friction, permeability, and condition over time, studying appropriate changes. 1. Literature Survey: Survey practice and research in other states and Europe on the lifetime performance of their open-graded mix types with respect to sound, intensity, durability, friction, and permeability. 2. PPRC Testing Capability: Develop capability to measure field sound intensity, lab noise, impedance and field surface friction. 3. Create Database Structure for data collected in research. 4. Field Data collection a. Field Sections in California- Data collected on surfaces, test measurements and trends over time. b. Field and Lab Data Outside California- Data on mixes and report on trends with data summarized annually. c. Data into Database- Database will eventually be populated with lifetime performance trends to identify best practice for CA open graded and rubberized mixes will be completed. 5. Performance Trends and Statistical Analysis: Summarize information on laboratory tests that correlate with pavement performance from the standpoint of noise and permeability, and gather information on mix design methods, identifying best practices that can potentially be brought to CA. 6. Two-Year Summary Repor
4.17 HVS testing pre-cast PCC panels in District 8 N.Burmas E.Kohler HVS test of pre-cast panels in District 8 1. Prepare test plan 2. Short-term, high load test 3. Long-term crack test ( section 1 dry, wet + section 2 dry, wet + forensic) 4. Comprehensive analysis and reporting
4.18 Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) Performance Under Heavy Vehicle Simulator Loading T.Bressette D.Jones Determine whether the addition of additives to reduce the production and construction temperatures of asphalt concrete influences performance 1. Prepare workplan (preliminary planning was done under SPE 2.3 of the PPRC Strategic Plan) 2. Monitor construction of HVS test track 3. Sample mix and mix components 4. HVS testing to assess rutting, moisture sensitivity, and fatigue performance 5. Traffic in-service sections to assess early-opening performance 6. Lab tests to identify comparable laboratory performance measures
4.19 Third Year Field Evaluation of Tire/Pavement Noise on Flexible Pavements W.Farnbach E.Kohler The goal is to recognize flexible pavement types that are the most durable, smooth, and quiet 1. Perform third year of noise, smoothness, and condition survey monitoring of sections from project 4.16. 2. Conduct noise, smoothness, and condition survey monitoring on new field sections 3. Develop pavement temperature correction for OBSI data and upgrades to the instrumented noise car 4. Analyze results, model where applicable 5. Develop preliminary table of expected lives for flexible pavement surfaces
Pavement location: Urban
Pavement functional classification: Interstate
Number of lanes: 3 lanes in each direction
Traffic distribution: Assume 80% of the loading occurs in the design lane
Annual growth rate: Assume 2%
Design period: Investigate 20, 30 and 40 year design periods
Construction Materials: Surface course: 12.5 mm (0.5 inch) Superpave with E = 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi)Binder course: Dense-graded HMA mix with a nominal maximum aggregate sizeof 25 mm (1 inch).  Use E = 3,447 MPa (500,000 psi)Base course: Crushed aggregate with MR= 193 MPa (28,000 psi)Subbase course: None used
Subgrade: MR = 103 MPa (15,000 psi) in the dry months of May through October
MR = 86 MPa (12,500 psi) in the wet months of November through April
Overall serviceability loss: po – pt = 4.5 – 3.0 = 1.5
Reliability: Investigate three levels: R = 90%, R = 95%, R = 99%. This represents a typical range of reliability levels encountered for Interstate highways.
So: 0.50
Traffic count: Single unit trucks (assume 0.40 ESALs per truck) = 1872/day
Double unit trucks (assume 1.00 ESALs per truck) = 1762/day Double unit trucks (assume 1.00 ESALs per truck) = 1762/day
Truck trains – trucks with more than 2 units (assume 1.75 ESALs per truck) = 247/day Truck trains – trucks with more than 2 units (assume 1.75 ESALs per truck) = 247/day
Singles: (1872/day) (0.8) (365) (0.40) equals 218,650 ESALs/yr
Doubles: (762/day) (0.8) (365) (1.00) equals 514,504 ESALs/yr
Trains: (247/day) (0.8) (365) (1.75) equals 126,217 ESALs/yr
Total equals 859,371 ESALs/yr
Rounded total equals 860,000 ESALs/yr
20 year design life:
30 year design life:
40 year design life:
where: uf equals relative damage factor
MR equals resilient modulus in psi
Month MR uf
January 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 0.037
February 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 0.037
March 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 0.037
April 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 0.037
May 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 0.024
June 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 0.024
July 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 0.024
August 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 0.024
September 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 0.024
October 103 MPa (15,000 psi) 0.037
November 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 0.037
December 86 MPa (12,500 psi) 0.037
average relative damage equals
Rearrange the relative damage equation and get
Design Period Design Period ESALs Pavement Layer Layer Thickness
Reliability = 90% Reliability = 95% Reliability = 99%
20 years <21,000,000 HMA Surface Course 105 mm
(4.2 inches)
105 mm
(4.2 inches)
105 mm
(4.2 inches)
HMA Binder Course 130 mm
(5.1 inches)
150 mm
(5.8 inches)
180 mm
(7.21 inches)
Base Course 135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
SN 4.79 5.10 5.70
<30 years <35,000,000 HMA Surface Course 105 mm
(4.2 inches)
105 mm
(4.2 inches)
105 mm
(4.2 inches)
HMA Binder Course 150 mm
(6.0 inches)
170 mm
(6.7 inches)
205 mm
(8.1 inches)
Base Course 135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
SN 5.17 5.49 6.11
<40 years <52,000,000 HMA Surface Course 105 mm
(4.2 inches)
105 mm
(4.2 inches)
105 mm
(4.2 inches)
HMA Binder Course 170 mm
(6.6 inches)
190 mm
(7.4 inches)
225 mm
(8.8 inches)
Base Course 135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
135 mm
(5.4 inches)
SN 5.47 5.80 6.44
Layer coefficients used were 0.44 for HMA and 0.13 for crushed stone
Frost design requirements must be checked if subgrade soil frost susceptible
M&R Treatment Selection Guidelines
Treatment L&T/Block Cracking (<3/16 in) Raveling (M to H Severity) Surface Wear (M to H Severity)
% Area % Area % Area
10 10-25 >25 10
Slurry Seal R R R R R R R R
Microsurfacing R R R R R R R R
NOMINAL MAXIMUM AGGREGATE SIZE CONTROL POINTS (PERCENT PASSING)
Sieve Size 37.5 mm (1.5 inch) 25.0 mm (1.0 inch) 19.0 mm (0.75 inch) 12.5 mm (0.5 inch) 9.5 mm (1.375 inch)
Metric U.S. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
50.0 mm 2.0 inch 100 - - - - - - - - -
37.5 mm 1.5 inch 90 100 100 - - - - - - -
25.0 mm 1.0 inch - 90 90 100 100 - - - - -
19.0 mm 0.75 inch - - - 90 90 100 100 - - -
12.5 mm 0.5 inch - - - - - 90 90 100 100 -
9.5 mm 0.375 inch - - - - - - - 90 90 100
4.75 mm No. 4 - - - - - - - - - 90
2.36 mm No. 8 15 41 19 45 23 49 28 58 32 67
0.075 mm No. 200 0 6 1 7 2 8 2 10 2 10
where: W18 equals predicted number of 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs
ZR equals standard normal deviate
So equals combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance prediction
D equals slab depth (inches)
pt equals terminal serviceability index
ΔPSI equals difference between the initial design serviceability index, po, and the design terminal serviceability index, pt
equals modulus of rupture of PCC (flexural strength)
Cd equals drainage coefficient
J equals load transfer coefficient (value depends upon the load transfer efficiency)
Ec equals Elastic modulus of PCC
k equals modulus of subgrade reaction
where: Ec equals PCC elastic modulus
equals PCC compressive strength
Condition J Factor
Undoweled PCC on crushed aggregate surfacing 3.8
Doweled PCC on crushed aggregate surfacing 3.2
Doweled PCC on HMA (without widened outside lane) and tied PCC shoulders 2.7
CRCP with HMA shoulders 2.9 – 3.2
CRCP with tied PCC shoulders 2.3 – 2.9
where: nd equals total number of deflection sensors used
dci equals calculated pavement surface deflection at sensor i
dmi equals measured pavement surface deflection at sensor i
Deflection Sensor Distance from Load Center Deflection (mils)
Measured Calculated
1 0 mm (0 inches) 5.07 4.90
2 200 mm (8 inches) 4.32 3.94
3 300 mm (12 inches) 3.67 3.50
4 450 mm (18 inches) 2.99 3.06
5 600 mm (24 inches) 2.40 2.62
6 900 mm (36 inches) 1.69 1.86
7 1500 mm (60 inches) 1.01 0.95
where: W equals required joint width
ΔL equals estimated joint opening
S equals allowable sealant strain (dependent upon the sealant type)
equals 0.15 to 0.50 for rubberized asphalt (width:depth shape factor of 1:1)
equals 0.30 to 0.50 for silicone sealant (width:depth shape factor of 2:1)
Environmental Factors Mix Property Factors Construction Factors
Temperature Aggregate Rollers
*Ground temperature *Gradation *Type
*Air temperature *Size *Number
*Wind speed *Shape *Speed and timing
*Solar flux *Fractured faces *Number of passes
*Volume *Lift thickness
Asphalt Binder Other
*Chemical properties *HMA production temperature
*Physical properties *Haul distance
*Amount *Haul time
Foundation support
Load Number of ESALs
18,000 lb. single axle 1.000
2,000 lb. single axle 0.0003
30,000 lb. single axle 7.9
18,000 lb. tandem axle 0.109
40,000 lb. tandem axle 2.06
Specification Typical Range Comments
Cut Width 1.5 inches to 8 feet (although narrower and wider drums are available) Drums come in specific widths. Varying widths can be made with multiple passes.
Cut Depth up to 10 inches per pass It may be easier to make several shallow passes than one deep pass.
Production Rate 100 to 200 tons/hr for large machines Depends on machine and pavement conditions.
Material Size After Milling 95% passing the 2-inch sieve Typical size.
Sieve Size Restricted Zone Control Points
(mm) (U.S.) Lower Upper Lower Upper
50 2 inch 100
37.5 1.5 inch 90 100
25 1 inch 90
19 3/4 inch
12.5 1/2 inch
9.5 3/8 inch
4.75 No. 4 34.7 34.7
2.36 No. 8 15 41 23.3 27.3
1.18 No. 16 15.5 21.5
0.60 No. 30 11.7 15.7
0.30 No. 50 10.0 10.0
0.15 No. 100
0.075 No. 200 0 6
Specification Typical Range Comments
Cut Width 75 mm (3 inches) to 4.5 m (14 feet) Drums come in specific widths. Varying widths can be made with multiple passes.
Cut Depth up to 250 mm(10 inches) per pass It is easier to make several shallow passes than one deep pass.
Production Rate 100 to 200 tons/hr for large machines Depends on machine and pavement conditions.
Material Size after Milling 95% passing the 50 mm (2-inch) sieve Typical size.
Sieve Size Restricted Zone Control Points
(mm) (U.S.) Lower Upper Lower Upper
37.5 1.5 inch 100
25 1 inch 90 100
19 3/4 inch 90
12.5 1/2 inch
9.5 3/8 inch
4.75 No. 4 39.5 39.5
2.36 No. 8 19 45 26.8 30.8
1.18 No. 16 18.1 24.1
0.60 No. 30 13.6 17.6
0.30 No. 50 11.4 11.4
0.15 No. 100
0.075 No. 200 1 7
Category Class GVWR2 Representative Vehicles
Light 1 0 – 27 kN
0 – 6,000 lbs.
pickup trucks, ambulances, parcel delivery
2 27 – 45 kN
(6,001 – 10,000 lbs.)
3 45 – 62 kN
(10,001 – 14,000 lbs.)
Medium 4 62 – 71 kN
(14,001 – 16,000 lbs.)
city cargo van, beverage delivery truck, wrecker, school bus
5 71 – 87 kN
(16,001 – 19,500 lbs.)
6 87 – 116 kN
(19,501 – 26,000 lbs.)
7 116 – 147 kN
(26,001 to 33,000 lbs.)
Heavy 8 147 kN and over
(33,000 lbs. and over)
truck tractor, concrete mixer, dump truck, fire truck, city transit bus
Sieve Size Restricted Zone Control Points
(mm) (U.S.) Lower Upper Lower Upper
25 1 inch 100
19 3/4 inch 90 100
12.5 1/2 inch 90
9.5 3/8 inch
4.75 No. 4
2.36 No. 8 23 49 34.6 34.6
1.18 No. 16 22.3 28.3
0.60 No. 30 16.7 20.7
0.30 No. 50 13.7 13.7
0.15 No. 100
0.075 No. 200 2 8
Class Type Description Typical ESALs per Vehicle2
1 Motorcycles All two- or three-wheeled motorized vehicles. Typical vehicles in this category have saddle type seats and are steered by handle bars rather than wheels. This category includes motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, motor-powered bicycles, and three-wheel motorcycles. This vehicle type may be reported at the option of the State. negligible
2 Passenger Cars All sedans, coupes, and station wagons manufactured primarily for the purpose of carrying passengers and including those passenger cars pulling recreational or other light trailers. negligible
3 Other Two-Axle, All two-axle, four tire, vehicles, other than passenger cars. Included in this classification are pickups, panels, vans, and other vehicles such as campers, motor homes, ambulances, hearses, and carryalls. Other two-axle, four-tire single unit vehicles pulling recreational or other light trailers are included in this classification. Other Two-Axle,
4 Buses All vehicles manufactured as traditional passenger-carrying buses with two axles and six tires or three or more axles. This category includes only traditional buses (including school buses) functioning as passenger-carrying vehicles. All two-axle, four-tire single unit vehicles. Modified buses should be considered to be a truck and be appropriately classified. 0.57
5 Two-Axle, Six-Tire, Single Unit Trucks All vehicles on a single frame including trucks, camping and recreational vehicles, motor homes, etc., having two axles and dual rear wheels. 0.26
6 Three-Axle Single Unit Trucks All vehicles on a single frame including trucks, camping and recreational vehicles, motor homes, etc., having three axles. 0.42
7 Four or More Axle Single Unit Trucks All trucks on a single frame with four or more axles. 0.42
8 Four or Less Axle Single Trailer Trucks All vehicles with four or less axles consisting of two units, one of which is a tractor or straight truck power unit. 0.30
9 Five-Axle Single Trailer Trucks All five-axle vehicles consisting of two units, one of which is a tractor or straight truck power unit. 1.20
10 Six or More Axle Single Trailer Trucks All vehicles with six or more axles consisting of two units, one of which is a tractor or straight truck power unit. 0.93
11 Five or Less Axle Multi-Trailer Trucks All vehicles with five or less axles consisting of three or more units, one of which is a tractor or straight truck power unit. 0.82
12 Six-Axle Multi-Trailer Trucks All six-axle vehicles consisting of three or more units, one of which is a tractor or straight truck power unit. 1.06
13 Seven or More Axle Multi-Trailer Trucks All vehicles with seven or more axles consisting of three or more units, one of which is a tractor or straight truck power unit. 1.39
Sieve Size Restricted Zone Control Points
(mm) (U.S.) Lower Upper Lower Upper
19 3/4 inch 100
12.5 1/2 inch 90 100
9.5 3/8 inch 90
4.75 No. 4
2.36 No. 8 28 58 39.1 39.1
1.18 No. 16 25.6 31.6
0.60 No. 30 19.1 23.1
0.30 No. 50 15.5 15.5
0.15 No. 100
0.075 No. 200 2 10
Sieve Size Restricted Zone Control Points
(mm) (U.S.) Lower Upper Lower Upper
12.5 1/2 inch 100
9.5 3/8 inch 90 100
4.75 No. 4 90
2.36 No. 8 32 67 47.2 47.2
1.18 No. 16 31.6 37.6
0.60 No. 30 23.5 27.5
0.30 No. 50 18.7 18.7
0.15 No. 100
0.075 No. 200 2 10
Bus ESALs/Bus Bus ESALs/Bus
AM General Diesel
• Empty
• 50% Full
• 100% Full
• 130% Full
1.14
1.67
2.34
2.85
MAN 60‘
• Empty
• 50% Full
• 100% Full
• 130% Full
0.84
1.42
2.20
2.87
AM General Trolley
• Empty
• 50% Full
• 100% Full
• 130% Full
0.80
1.22
1.78
2.19
Flexible Diesel
• Empty
• 50% Full
• 100% Full
• 130% Full
0.57
0.94
1.50
1.92
Flyer
• Empty
• 50% Full
• 100% Full
• 130% Full
0.96
1.45
2.11
2.61
GM Diesel
• Empty
• 50% Full
• 100% Full
• 130% Full
0.58
0.95
1.46
1.84
Flyer Diesel
• Empty
• 50% Full
• 100% Full
• 130% Full
0.85
1.21
1.67
2.02
Breda 60‘
• Empty
• 50% Full
• 100% Full
• 130% Full
2.53
3.63
5.11
6.17
MAN 40‘
• Empty
• 50% Full
• 100% Full
• 130% Full
1.27
1.80
2.67
3.29
Slab Thickness k = 27 MPa/m (100 pci) k = 216 MPa/m (800 pci) k = 54 MPa/m (200 pci)
l L l L l L
225 mm (9 inches) 1067 mm (42.0 inches) 5.3 m (17.5 ft.) 897 mm (35.3 inches) 4.5 m (14.7 ft.) 635 mm (25.0 inches) 3.2 m (10.4 ft.)
325 mm (13 inches) 1405 mm (55.3 inches) 7.0 m (23.0 ft.) 1181 mm (46.5 inches) 5.9 m (19.4 ft.) 836 mm (32.9 inches) 4.2 m (13.7 ft.)
Axle The common axis of rotation of one or more wheels whether power-driven or freely rotating, and whether in one or more segments, and regardless of the number of wheels carried thereon.
Axle Group An assemblage of two or more consecutive axles considered together in determining their combined load effect on a bridge or pavement structure.
Automobile Transporter Any vehicles or combination designed and used exclusively for the transport of assembled highway vehicles.
Bus A motor vehicle designed primarily for the transportation of persons rather than property and having a passenger-carrying capacity of 10 or more persons, other than a taxicab constructed and designed for transporting persons for commercial purposes.
Cargo The items or freight to be moved; including items placed on or in a vehicle, towed by a vehicle, or a vehicle itself.
Connecting Mechanism An arrangement of parts interconnecting two or more consecutive axles to the frame of a vehicle in such a manner as to equalize the load between axles.
Dromedary Unit A load carrying compartment on a truck-tractor located between the cab and the fifth wheel.
Gross Weight The weight of a vehicle and/or combination of vehicles plus the weight of any load thereon.
Height The total vertical dimension of a vehicle above the ground surface including any load and load-holding device thereon.
Length The total longitudinal dimension of a single vehicle, a trailer, or a semi trailer. Length of a trailer or semi trailer is measured from the front of the cargo-carrying unit to its rear, exclusive of all overhang, safety or energy efficiency devices, including air conditioning units, air compressors, flexible fender extensions, splash and spray suppressant devices, bolsters, mechanical fastening devices, and hydraulic lift gates.
Load A weight or quantity of anything resting upon something else regarded as its support.
Motor Vehicle A vehicle which is self-propelled or propelled by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operating upon rails.
Operator Every person who drives or is in actual physical control of a motor vehicle upon a highway or who is exercising control over or steering a vehicle being towed by a motor vehicle.
Owner A person, other than a lien-holder, having the property in or title to a vehicle, including a person entitled to the use and possession of a vehicle subject to a security interest in another person, but excluding a lessee under a lease not intended as security.
Pavement Structure The combination of subbase, base course, and surface course placed on an earth subgrade to support the traffic load and distribute it to the roadbed.
Quadrum Axle Any four consecutive axles whose extreme centers are not more than 192 inches (16 ft or 4.9 m) apart and are individually attached to or articulated from, or both, a common attachment to the vehicle including a connecting mechanism designed to equalize the load between the axles.
Regular Operation The movement over highways of vehicles, vehicle combinations, and loads thereon, subject to the recommended limitations contained in this guide governing maximum weights and dimensions for motor vehicles and loads thereon.
Scale Tolerance An allowable variation in the static weight of an axle load in accordance with, but not exceeding the precision of the scale involved.
Semi trailer Every single vehicle without motive power designed for carrying property and so designed in conjunction and used with a motor vehicle that some part of its own weight and that of its load rests or is carried by another vehicle and having one or more load-carrying axles.
Single Axle An assembly of two or more wheels whose centers are in one transverse vertical plane or may be included between two parallel transverse planes 40 inches (3.3 ft or 1.0 m) apart extending across the full width of the vehicle.
Special Permit A written authorization to move or operate on a highway a vehicle or vehicles with or without a load of size and/or weight exceeding the limits prescribed for vehicles in regular operation.
Special Permit Applicant An individual, firm, partnership, corporation, or association making application for a special permit to transport a vehicle, vehicles, and/or load which is oversize or overweight and under whose authority and responsibility such vehicle or load is transported.
Steering Axle The axle or axles of a motor vehicle or combination of vehicles by which the same is guided or steered.
Stinger-Steered Automobile Transporter A truck-tractor semi trailer combination where the fifth wheel is located on a drop frame behind and below the drive axle of the power unit. In this configuration, vehicles are carried behind or both behind and above the cab of the power unit, as well as on the semi trailer.
Tandem Axle Any two axles whose centers are more than 40 inches (3.3 ft or 1.0 m) but not more than 96 inches (8 ft or 2.4 m) apart and are individually attached to or articulated from, or both, a common attachment to the vehicle including a connecting mechanism designed to equalize the load between axles.
Tire, Pneumatic A tire of rubber or other resilient material which depends upon compressed air for support of a load.
Trailer Every single vehicle without motive power designed for carrying property wholly on its own structure, drawn by a motor vehicle which carries no part of the weight and load of the trailer on its own wheels and having two or more load carrying axles.
Traveled Way The portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders and auxiliary lanes.
Tridum Axle Any three consecutive axles whose extreme centers are not more than 144 inches (12 ft or 3.7 m) apart, and are individually attached to or articulated from, or both, a common attachment to the vehicle including a connecting mechanism designed to equalize the load between axles.
Triple Saddle Mount A combination of four truck-tractors where the front axle of second truck-tractor is mounted on the fifth wheel of the lead truck-tractor, the front axle of the third truck-tractor is mounted on the fifth wheel of the second truck-tractor, and the front axle of the fourth truck-tractor is mounted on the fifth wheel of the third truck-tractor; and with the rear wheels of the second, third, and fourth truck-tractors trailing on the ground behind the operating motor unit.
Truck A single unit motor vehicle used primarily for the transportation of property.
Truck Tractor A motor vehicle used primarily for drawing other vehicles and not so constructed as to carry a load other than a part of the weight of the vehicle and load so drawn.
Turning Path The path of a designated point on a vehicle making a specified turn.
Turning Track Width The radial distance between the turning paths of the outside of the outer front tire and the outside of the rear tire which is nearest the center of the turn.
Variable Load Suspension Axles Axles which can be regulated by the driver of the vehicle. These axles are controlled by hydraulic and air suspension systems, mechanically, or by a combination of these methods.
Vehicle A device in, upon, or by which any person or property may be transported or drawn upon a highway, except devices moved by human power or used exclusively upon stationary rails or tracks.
Vehicle Combination An assembly of two or more vehicles coupled together for travel upon a highway.
Width The total outside transverse dimension of a vehicle including any load or load-holding devices thereon, but excluding approved safety devices and tire bulge due to load.
where x: b equals binder
s equals stone (i.e., aggregate)
m equals mixture
y: b equals bulk
e equals effective
a equals apparent
m equals maximum
Parameter Typical Values Effect of Dynamic Force
Frequency 1,600 to 3,600 vibrations per minute Frequency ∝ (Dynamic Force)2
Amplitude 0.25 to 1.02 mm (0.01 to 0.04 inches) Amplitude ∝ Dynamic Force
HMA/Mat Characteristic Frequency Amplitude
Thin Lifts (less than about 30mm (1.25 inches)) Operate in static mode. Under vibratory mode, as the pavement increases in density the drums may begin to bounce, which may cause the HMA to shove and become less dense. Also, some of the aggregates may be crushed.
Lifts between 30 mm and 65 mm (1.25 and 2.5 inches) High Frequency Low Amplitude
Lifts beyond 65 mm (2.5 inches) High Frequency Low Amplitude
Stiff (more viscous) HMA High Frequency Low Amplitude
Laboratory Conditions Field Conditions
Asphalt Binder
Aging is simulated using the TFO, RTFO or PAV. All of these methods are only rough simulations of actual asphalt binder aging. Aging is much more complex – especially after construction when it is highly dependent upon construction quality and the environment.
After mixing, the loose mix is generally aged to allow for asphalt binder absorption and an increase in viscosity. After mixing the loose mix can be immediately transported to the construction site or can be placed in storage silos for up to a week.
Aggregate
Gradation is carefully measured and controlled. During the manufacturing process aggregate gradation will change slightly as it passes through the cold feed bins, aggregate dryer and drum mixer/pugmill.
Aggregate used is completely dry. Even after drying, aggregates typically contains between 0.1 – 0.5 percent by weight moisture.
Oven heating of the aggregate usually results in uniform heating of the coarse and fine aggregate. In a drum plant there is often a distinct temperature difference between the coarse and fine aggregate.
Fines are retained during the mixing process. Some fines are collected in the mix plant baghouse. If all of these fines are not put back into the mix (practically, they cannot be because baghouse efficiencies are less than 100%) the aggregate gradation will change slightly.
If RAP is used, it is heated to the same uniform temperature as the virgin aggregate. If RAP is used its degree of heating may be different than the virgin aggregate.
Mixing Process
The mixing process occurs on essentially unaged asphalt binder for the Hveem and Marshall methods. The Superpave method roughly simulates short-term aging using the RTFO. The mixing process can substantially age the asphalt binder. A mixing time of 45 seconds can increase asphalt binder viscosity by up to 4 times.
Compaction
Compaction uses a laboratory device and a small cylindrical sample of HMA. This combination attempts to simulate the particle orientation achieved by field compaction with rollers. Particle orientation and compactive effort can vary widely depending upon roller variables and the environment (e.g., temperature, wind speed).
Compaction is relatively quick (< 5 minutes) and thus occurs at an almost constant temperature. Compaction can take a significant amount of time (30 minutes or more in some cases) and thus occurs over a wide range of mix temperatures.
Compaction occurs against a solid foundation. Foundation rigidity will affect compaction. Compaction can occur against a range of foundations: some can be quite stiff (like old pavement) while some can be quite soft (like a clay subgrade).
Sieve (metric) 19.0 mm 12.5 mm 9.5 mm 2.36 mm 0.075 mm
Sieve Size (U.S. units) 3/4 inch 1/2 inch 3/8 inch No. 8 No. 200
Gradation Control Points 100 min. 90 – 100 90 max. 28 – 58 2.0 – 7.0
Job Mix Formula (JMF) 100 96 75 29 4.5
Tolerance 99 – 100 +/- 6% +/- 6% +/- 4% +/- 2.0%
Tolerance Limits 99 – 100 90 – 100 69 – 81 25 – 33 2.5 – 6.5
Soil γd (lb/ft3)
Gravel and sand 120 – 140
Silts and clays 90 – 100
Peat ˜ 20
Material γd (lb/ft3)
Gravel 2 – 10
Sands 5 – 15
Silts 5 – 40
Clays 10 – 50 or more
Organic (Peat) > 50
Day Maximum Minimum Average Cumulative Degree Days
1 29 1 15 -17
2 9 -11 -1 -33
3 10 -8 1 -31
4 15 -1 7 -25
5 30 16 23 -9
6 38 30 34 +2
7 30 18 24 -8
Surface Type “n”
Snow 1.0
Pavements free of snow and ice 0.9
Sand and gravel 0.9
Turf 0.5
Surface Type “n”
Sand and gravel 2.0
Turf 1.0
Station Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-day) Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-days)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Aberdeen 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 24
Anacortes 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 37
Battle Ground 45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 53
Bellingham 59 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 83
Bellingham Airport 67 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 97
Bickleton 231 68 18 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42 120
Blaine 68 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 100
Bremerton 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 28
Buckly 40 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 65
Cedar Lake 85 26 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 140 70
Centralia 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 37
Chelan 262 110 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 149 560
Chewelah 339 150 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 62 216 802
Chief Joseph Dam 293 136 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 175 655
Clearbrook 103 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 39 161
Station Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-day) Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-days)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Clearwater 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 28
Cle Elum 268 94 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 151 583
Colfax 226 45 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 99 408
Colville 321 119 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 221 765
Concrete 57 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 84
Coulee Dam 284 107 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 155 595
Coupeville 28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 39
Dallesport Airport 179 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 52 253
Davenport 315 133 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 66 198 737
Dayton 206 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 61 315
Diablo Dam 126 23 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 54 222
Electron Headworks 78 20 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 40 154
Elma 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 29
Elwha Rngr Station 47 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 67
Ephrata Airport 285 98 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 41 167 596
Station Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-day) Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-days)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Everett 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 46
Forks 22 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 37
Glenoma 47 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 73
Grapeview 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 24
Hatton 266 54 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 124 487
Hoquiam 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 24
Kennewick 202 26 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 54 300
Kent 28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 36
Kid Valley 43 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 67
Lacrosse 248 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 103 423
Landsburg 48 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 71
Laurier 350 121 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 82 238 826
Lind 266 62 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 126 497
Longview 36 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 42
Millin Reservoir 42 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 61
Station Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-day) Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-days)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Monroe 38 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 52
Moses Lake 292 92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 153 587
Mt. Adams Rngr Sta. 197 48 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 31 90 388
Moxee City 263 63 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 31 134 491
Mud Mtn. Dam 56 15 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 97
Newhalem 88 18 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 39 158
Newport 306 112 49 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 73 199 739
Northport 275 94 19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 46 174 608
Oakville 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 45
Odessa 273 82 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 41 144 549
Olga 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 40
Olympia 31 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 51
Omak 344 175 28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 67 234 848
Othello 276 64 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 125 500
Palmer 58 14 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 102
Station Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-day) Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-days)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Pomeroy 201 32 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 66 328
Port Angeles 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 20
Prosser 240 46 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 84 392
Pullman 243 77 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 118 476
Puyallup 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 41
Quilcene 39 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 58
Quillayute 22 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 36
Quincy 303 106 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 51 189 658
Paradise 254 161 161 85 27 9 0 0 9 19 103 219 1047
Republic 408 170 73 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 117 304 1072
Richland 199 28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 54 294
Ritzville 281 94 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42 143 570
Rosalia 269 94 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 49 142 576
Seattle 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 17
Sea-Tac 24 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 39
Station Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-day) Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-days)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Sea U.W. 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 20
Sedro Wooley 46 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 67
Sequim 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 28
Shelton 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 29
Snqlm. Falls 44 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 70
Spokane 299 108 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 58 178 667
Sprague 287 94 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 148 591
Stampede Pass 283 150 116 48 13 0 0 0 0 9 105 213 937
Startup 38 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 58
Stehekin 195 70 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 44 127 448
Sunnyside 216 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 73 340
Tacoma City Hall 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 24
Vancouver 57 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 65
Walla-Walla Airport 192 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 59 293
Walla-Walla 188 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 50 272
Station Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-day) Mean Annual Freezing Index (°F-days)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Wapato 214 36 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 80 348
Waterville 349 152 51 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 84 246 882
Wenatchee 233 83 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 128 466
Wilbur 306 126 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 189 694
Willapa Harbor 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12
Wilson Creek 276 79 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42 163 566
Winthrop 451 206 65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 108 342 1172
Yakima 258 63 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 31 123 475
Agency Use of Frost Protection in Thickness Design
Alaska DOT More than 50 percent but not full
Maine DOT More than 50 percent but not full
Montana DOT Frost protection not included in design
North Dakota DOT Frost protection not included in design
Oregon DOT More than 50 percent but not full
Washington DOT Depth > 50 percent
Passenger Cars Trucks
Single-Unit Combination
$11 to $15per hour $19 to $23per hour $24 to $28per hour
Activity Noise Level (dBA)
Threshold of pain 140
Jet flyover at 1000 feet 110
Gas Lawnmover at three feet 100
Loud shout 90
Diesel truck at 50 feet 90
Motocycle passing at 50 feet 85
Blender at three feet 85
Car traveling 60 mph passing at 50 feet 80
Heavy traffic at 300 feet 60
Normal conversation 60
Quiet living room 40
Average tine spacing 13 mm (½ in.) 26 mm (1 in.)
Example illustration
Recommended actual spacing intervals (in mm) 10/14/16/11/10/13/15/16/11/10/21/13/10 24/27/23/31/21/34
Location Response Reason for Use
Pavement Surface Deflection Used in imposing load restrictions during spring thaw and overlay design (for example)
Bottom of HMA layer Horizontal Tensile Strain Used to predict fatigue failure in the HMA
Top of Intermediate Layer (Base or Subbase) Vertical Compressive Strain Used to predict rutting failure in the base or subbase
Top of Subgrade Vertical Compressive Strain Used to predict rutting failure in the subgrade
Measurement Ozone (µg/m3) NO2 (µg/m3) SO2(µg/m3)
Various sampling periods 100 (8-hour mean) 40 (annual mean) 20 (24 hour mean)
200 (1 hour mean) 500 (10 minute mean)
Most corrosion resistance, highest cost
Solid stainless steel
Stainless steel clad
Stainless steel sleeve, epoxy-coated insert
High chromium steel
Zinc clad
Epoxy-coated steel
Plain, uncoated steel
Least corrosion resistance, lowest cost
where: W2.5 equals number of applications of axle load L1 sustained by the pavement to a terminal serviceability index of 2.5
L1 equals single axle load (kips)
dsn equals Benkelman Beam springtime measured pavement surface deflection (0.001 in.) measured at the AASHO Road Test (Spring 1959) after “disappearance of frost.”
Source of Sound/Noise Approximate Sound Pressure 
in µPa
Launching of the Space Shuttle 2,000,000,000
Full Symphony Orchestra 2,000,000
Diesel Freight Train at High Speed at 25 m 200,000
Normal Conversation 20,000
Soft Whispering at 2 m in Library 2,000
Unoccupied Broadcast Studio 200
Softest Sound Human can Hear 20
Source: Environmental Protection Department, Government of Hong Kong.
Loads to Failure Limiting "Spring" Deflection (in.)
AASHO Road Test RTAC
10,000 0.148 0.100
100,000 0.072 0.080
1,000,000 0.036 0.040
10,000,000 0.018 0.020
Source dB
Threshold of hearing 0
Rustling leaves 20
Quiet whisper at 3 ft. 30
Quiet street 50
Inside car 70
Diesel truck 100
Jet at 100 ft. 130
Allowed to be unprotected Allowed to be unprotected
Up to 8 hours 90 decibels
Up to 4 hours 95 decibels
Up to 1 hour 105 decibels
Layer Elastic Modulus Poisson’s Ratio
psi MPa
Asphalt Concrete 500,000 3450 0.35
Crushed Stone Base 25,000 172 0.40
Fine-grained Subgrade 7,500 52 0.45
Equipment Decibels Equipment Decibels
Pneumatic chip hammer 103-113 Earth Tamper 90-96
Jackhammer 102-111 Crane 90-96
Concrete joint cutter 99-102 Hammer 87-95
Portable saw 88-102 Earthmover 87-94
Stud welder 101 Front-end loader 86-94
Bulldozer 93-96 Backhoe 84-93
See videos, below.
Section AC Thickness Base Thickness
in mm in mm
A 2 50 6 150
B 5 125 8 200
C 9 230 6 150
Category Result (dBA)
Average full-shift noise level 81.4
Average length of work shifts 8 hr 26 min
% of full-shift average levels over 85 dBA 34%
% of full-shift average levels over 90 dBA 10%
% of work shifts with any noise over 115 dBA 52%
Average % time hearing protectors used above 85 dBA 39%
Average % time hearing protectors used above 115 dBA 34%
Note: Based on one minute samples of Leq
Thin Pavement: z = 2 in (50 mm)
Medium Pavement: z = 5 in (125 mm)
Thick Pavement: z = 9 in (230 mm)
Trade NRR (dBA)
Sheet metal worker 12
Insulation worker 12
Electrician 12
Tile setter 12
Carpenter 14
Cement Mason 14
Ironworker 18
Bricklayer 22
Laborer 24
Operating Engineer 24
Masonry restoration worker 26
Thin Pavement: z = 8 in (200 mm)
Medium Pavement: z = 13 in (330 mm)
Thick Pavement: z = 15 in (380 mm)
District of Sound Source District of Receiving Property
Residential Commercial Industrial
Residential 55 57 60
Commercial 57 60 65
Industrial 60 65 70
Pavement Response Parameter Standard Pavement Low Tire Load High Tire Pressure Stabilized Subgrade Asphalt Treated Base Moisture Sensitive
inches mm inches mm inches mm inches mm inches mm inches mm
1. Surface deflection top of AC
1.1 Section A (thin) 0.048 1.219 0.006 0.152 0.052 1.321 0.036 0.914 0.021 0.533 0.053 1.346
1.2 Section B (med) 0.027 0.686 0.003 0.076 0.028 0.711 0.023 0.584 0.014 0.356 0.033 0.838
1.3 Section C (thick) 0.018 0.457 0.002 0.051 0.019 0.483 0.016 0.406 0.012 0.305 0.024 0.610
2. Horizontal tensile strain bottom of AC or ATB (x 10-6)
2.1 Section A (thin) 469 121 735 369 193 482
2.2 Section B (med) 279 44 352 246 88 433
2.3 Section C (thick) 145 17 17 128 161 258 128 67 258
3. Vertical compressive strain top of subgrade (x 10-6)
3.1 Section A (thin) -2,239 -284 -2,554 -956 -508 -2,604
3.2 Section B (med) -755 -79 -790 -431 -222 -1,037
3.3 Section C (thick) -371 -371 -38 -375 -375 -245 -245 -169 -169 -608 -608
District of Sound Source District of Receiving Property
Residential Commercial Industrial
Residential 45 57 60
Commercial 47 60 65
Industrial 50 65 70
Functional Classification Recommended Level of Reliability
Urban Rural
Interstate and Other Freeways 85 – 99.9 80 – 99.9
Principal Arterials 80 – 99 75 – 95
Collectors 80 – 95 75 – 95
Local 50 – 80 50 – 80
Gsa equals Apparent specific gravity of the aggregate   Ws equals Oven-dry weight of aggregate
Gb equals Asphalt binder specific gravity VS equals volume of the solids
Gsb equals Bulk specific gravity of the aggregate Vpp equals volume of water permeable pores
Gse equals Effective specific gravity of the aggregate Vap equals volume of pores absorbing asphalt
Gmb equals Bulk specific gravity of the compacted mixture Pb equals Asphalt content by weight of mix (percent)
Gmm equals Maximum theoretical specific gravity of the HMA mixture Ps equals Aggregate content by weight of mix (percent)
G1 equals Coarse aggregate specific gravity (retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve) P1 equals Coarse aggregate fraction (retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve)
G2 equals Fine aggregate specific gravity (between the 4.75 mm (No. 4) and 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve) P2 equals Fine aggregate fraction (between the 4.75 mm (No. 4) and 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve)
G3 equals Mineral filler specific gravity (passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve) P3 equals Mineral filler fraction (passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve)
γW equals Unit weight of water Vpp – Vap equals volume of water permeable pores not absorbing asphalt
Situation Possible Truck Type Reason
Paving on congested city streets End Dump Better maneuverability because it has no trailer and is smaller than a bottom dump or live bottom truck.
Paving using a mix highly vulnerable to segregation Live Bottom Live bottom trucks deliver the HMA by conveyor, which minimizes segregation.
Paving on rural highways Bottom Dump Usually has a larger capacity than end dump trucks (therefore fewer trucks are needed) but requires space and equipment for windrows.
Rock Type Hardness, Toughness Resistance to Stripping1,2 Surface Texture Crushed Shape
Igneous
Granite Fair Fair Fair Fair
Syenite Good Fair Fair Fair
Diorite Good Fair Fair Good
Basalt (trap rock) Good Good Good Good
Diabase (trap rock) Good Good Good Good
Gabbro (trap rock) Good Good Good Good
Sedimentary
Limestone Poor Good Good Fair
Sandstone Fair Good Good Good
Chert Good Fair Poor Good
Shale Poor Poor Fair Fair
Metamorphic
Gneiss Fair Fair Good Good
Schist Fair Fair Good Fair
Slate Good Fair Fair Fair
Quartzite Good Fair Good Good
Marble Poor Good Fair Fair
Serpentine Good Fair Fair Fair
Notes:

  • Aggregates that are hydrophilic (water-loving) tend to strip more readily since water more easily replaces the asphalt film over each particle.

  • Freshly crushed aggregates with many broken ionic bonds tend to strip more easily.
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size Minimum Sample Mass, g
U.S. Metric
1.5 inches 37.5 mm 4000
1.0 inches 25.0 mm 3000
0.75 inches 19.0 mm 2000
0.5 inches 12.5 mm 1500
.375 inches 9.5 mm 1200
No. 4 4.75 mm 1200
State Use of Frost Protection in Thickness Design
Alaska Pavement structure > 50 percent of freeze depth
Maine Pavement structure > 50 percent of freeze depth
Oregon Pavement structure > 50 percent of freeze depth
Washington Pavement structure > 50 percent of freeze depth
Ohio Remove and replace frost susceptible materials
Utah Remove and replace frost susceptible materials
Idaho Capillary break / rock cap
Material Resilient Modulus (MR)
MPa psi
HMA at 32°F (0 °C) 14,000 2,000,000
HMA at 70°F (21 °C) 3,500 500,000
HMA at 120°F (49 °C) 150 20,000
Axle Type (lbs) Axle Load Load Equivalency Factor (from AASHTO, 1993)
(kN) (lbs) Flexible Rigid
Single axle 8.9
44.5
62.3
80.0
89.0
133.4
2,000
10,000
14,000
18,000
20,000
30,000
0.0003
0.118
0.399
1.000
1.4
7.9
0.0002
0.082
0.341
1.000
1.57
8.28
Tandem axle 8.9
44.5
62.3
80.0
89.0
133.4
151.2
177.9
222.4
2,000
10,000
14,000
18,000
20,000
30,000
34,000
40,000
50,000
0.0001
0.011
0.042
0.109
0.162
0.703
1.11
2.06
5.03
0.0001
0.013
0.048
0.133
0.206
1.14
1.92
3.74
9.07
Material Value Specification HMA Distress of Concern
HMA Tensile strength ratio ≥ 0.80 Moisture damage, stripping
Material of concern Value Specification HMA Distress
PAV residue Creep stiffness at 60 s ≤ 300 MPa (43.5 psi) Low temperature cracking
PAV residue m-value at 60 s ≥ 0.300 Low temperature cracking
Material of Concern Value Specification HMA Distress
PAV residue Failure strain ≥ 1.0% at 1.0 mm/min (0.039 inch/min) Low temperature cracking
Temperature Simulation
194°F (90°C) cold climate
212°F (100°C) moderate climate
230°F (110°C) hot climate
Material Value Specification Property of Concern
Unaged binder Dynamic viscosity ≤ 3 Pa•s Pumping, mixing and workability
Curing Time Portland Cement Type
I IA II IIA III IIIA IV V
1 day - - - - 12.4
(1800)
10.0
(1450)
- -
3 days 12.4
(1800)
10.0
(1450)
10.3
(1500)
8.3
(1200)
24.1
(3500)
19.3
(2800)
- 8.3
(1200)
7 days 19.3
(2800)
15.5
(2250)
17.2
(2500)
13.8
(2000)
- - 6.9
(1000)
15.2
(2200)
28 days - - - - - - 17.2
(2500)
20.7
(3000)
Note: Type II and IIA requirements can be lowered if either an optional heat of hydration or chemical limit on the sum of C3S and C3A is specified
Chemical Name Chemical Formula Shorthand Notation Percent by Weight
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO×SiO2 C3S 50
Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO×SiO2 C2S 25
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO×Al2O3 C3A 12
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite 4CaO×Al2O3×Fe2O3 C4AF 8
Gypsum CaSO4×H2O CSH2 3.5
Type Name Purpose
I Normal General-purpose cement suitable for most purposes.
IA Normal-Air Entraining An air-entraining modification of Type I.
II Moderate Sulfate Resistance Used as a precaution against moderate sulfate attack. It will usually generate less heat at a slower rate than Type I cement.
IIA Moderate Sulfate Resistance-Air Entraining An air-entraining modification of Type II.
III High Early Strength Used when high early strength is needed. It is has more C3S than Type I cement and has been ground finer to provide a higher surface-to-volume ratio, both of which speed hydration. Strength gain is double that of Type I cement in the first 24 hours.
IIIA High Early Strength-Air Entraining An air-entraining modification of Type III.
IV Low Heat of Hydration Used when hydration heat must be minimized in large volume applications such as gravity dams. Contains about half the C3S and C3A and double the C2S of Type I cement.
V High Sulfate Resistance Used as a precaution against severe sulfate action – principally where soils or groundwaters have a high sulfate content. It gains strength at a slower rate than Type I cement. High sulfate resistance is attributable to low C3A content.
Test Method Set Type Time Specification
Vicat Initial ≥ 45 minutes
Final ≤ 375 minutes
Gillmore Initial ≥ 60 minutes
Final ≤ 600 minutes
Steering axle @ 14,000 lb equals 0.47 ESAL
Drive axle @ 34,000 lb equals 1.15 ESAL
Pole axle @ 30,000 lb equals 0.79 ESAL
Total equals 2.41 ESAL
where: W18 equals predicted number of 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs
ZR equals standard normal deviate
So equals combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance prediction
SN equals Structural Number (an index that is indicative of the total pavement thickness required)
equals a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3+…ai = ithlayer coefficientDi = ithlayer thickness (inches)mi = ith layer drainage coefficient
ΔPSI equals difference between the initial design serviceability index, po, and the design terminal serviceability index, pt
MR equals subgrade resilient modulus (in psi)
Reducing a sample to testing size 5 – 10 minutes
Washing the sample 5 – 10 minutes
Drying to a constant mass 8 – 12 hours (overnight)
Time in rotating drum 15 minutes
Sieving and rewashing 30 minutes
Drying to a constant mass 8 – 12 hours (overnight)
Final weighing 5 – 10 minutes
Mix Criteria Light Traffic (less than 104ESALs) Medium Traffic (104 – 106ESALs) Heavy Traffic (greater than 106ESALs)
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
Compaction (number of blows on each end of the sample) 35 50 75
Stability (minimum) 2224 N (500 lbs.) 3336 N (750 lbs.) 6672 N (1500 lbs.)
Flow (0.25 mm (0.01 inch)) 8 20 8 18 8 16
Percent Air Voids 3 5 3 5 3 5
Existing Pavement Condition Application Rate in liters/m2 (gallons/yd2) Residual Undiluted Diluted 1:1 with Water
New HMA 0.14 - 0.18
(0.03 - 0.04)
0.23 - 0.32
(0.05 - 0.07)
0.45 - 0.59
(0.10 - 0.13)
Oxidized HMA 0.18 - 0.27
(0.04 - 0.06)
0.32 - 0.45
(0.07 - 0.10)
0.59 - 0.91
(0.13 - 0.20)
Milled HMA 0.27 - 0.36
(0.06 - 0.08)
0.45 - 0.59
(0.10 - 0.13)
0.91 - 1.22
(0.20 - 0.27)
Milled PCC 0.27 - 0.36
(0.06 - 0.08)
0.45 - 0.59
(0.10 - 0.13)
0.91 - 1.22
(0.20 - 0.27)
PCC 0.18 - 0.27
(0.04 - 0.06)
0.32 - 0.45
(0.07 - 0.10)
0.59 - 0.91
(0.13 - 0.20)

Note: Before deciding to use ATPB, the Pavement Research Center’s research results should be carefully considered.

Low Traffic Medium Traffic High Traffic
< 300,000 ESALs 300,000 - 10 million ESALs > 10 million ESALs
Course Dense SMA OGFC ATPB Dense SMA OGFC ATPB Dense SMA OGFC ATPB
Surface mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot
Intermediate mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot
Base mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot mix selection guidance - black dot
mix selection guidance - black dot = Appropriate
mix selection guidance - black dot = Moderately Appropriate
empty = Not Appropriate
Material Elastic Modulus
MPa psi
Diamond 1,200,000 170,000,000
Steel 200,000 30,000,000
Glass Fibers 71,000 10,600,000
Aluminum 70,000 10,000,000
Wood 7,000 - 14,000 1,000,000 - 2,000,000
Crushed Stone 150-300 20,000 - 40,000
Silty Soils 35 - 150 5,000 - 20,000
Clay Soils 35 - 100 5,000 - 15,000
Rubber 7 1,000
Material Value Specification HMA Distress of Concern
Unaged binder G*/sinδ ≥ 1.0 kPa (0.145 psi) Rutting
RTFO residue G*/sinδ ≥ 2.2 kPa (0.319 psi) Rutting
PAV residue G*sinδ ≤ 5000 kPa (725 psi) Fatigue cracking
Parameter Threshold Value (contractor must take action above this value)
IRI 2.1 m/km (133 inches/mile)
Rut depth 9 mm (0.375 inches)
Surface Friction average of 35 but no single section < 25
Transverse Cracking Severity 2 (as defined by the Indiana DOT)
Longitudinal Cracking 5.5 m (18 ft.) per 152.5 m (500 ft.) section
Type of Construction Slump
(mm) (inches)
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 25 – 75 1 – 3
Plain footings, caissons and substructure walls 25 – 75 1 – 3
Beams and reinforced walls 25 – 100 1 – 4
Building columns 25 – 100 1 – 4
Pavements and slabs 25 – 75 1 – 3
Mass concrete 25 – 50 1 – 2
Specifications Fixed Form Slip Form
(mm) (inches) (mm) (inches)
Typical 25 – 75 1 – 3 0 – 75 0 – 3
Extremes as low as 25
as high as 175
as low as 1
as high as 7
as low as 0
as high as 125
as low as 0
as high as 5
General Soil Type USC Soil Type CBR Range
Coarse-grained soils GW 40 - 80
GP 30 - 60
GM 20 - 60
GC 20 - 40
SW 20 - 40
SP 10 - 40
SM 10 - 40
SC 5 - 20
Fine-grained soils ML 15 or less
CL LL < 50% 15 or less
OL 5 or less
MH 10 or less
CH LL > 50% 15 or less
OH 5 or less
Slump Mixing Water Quantity in kg/m3 (lb/yd3) for the listed Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size
9.5 mm
(0.375 in.)
12.5 mm
(0.5 in.)
19 mm
(0.75 in.)
25 mm
(1 in.)
37.5 mm
(1.5 in.)
50 mm
(2 in.)
75 mm
(3 in.)
100 mm
(4 in.)
Non-Air-Entrained PCC
25 – 50
(1 – 2)
207
(350)
199
(335)
190
(315)
179
(300)
166
(275)
154
(260)
130
(220)
113
(190)
75 – 100
(3 – 4)
228
(385)
216
(365)
205
(340)
193
(325)
181
(300)
169
(285)
145
(245)
124
(210)
150 – 175
(6 – 7)
243
(410)
228
(385)
216
(360)
202
(340)
190
(315)
178
(300)
160
(270)
-
Typical entrapped air (percent) 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.3 0.2
Air-Entrained PCC
25 – 50
(1 – 2)
181
(305)
175
(295)
168
(280)
160
(270)
148
(250)
142
(240)
122
(205)
107
(180)
150 – 175
(6 – 7)
216
(365)
205
(345)
197
(325)
184
(310)
174
(290)
166
(280)
154
(260)
-
Recommended Air Content (percent)
Mild Exposure 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
Moderate Exposure 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
Severe Exposure 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0